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SEXO

'To curl one's moustache' and other synonyms for talking about sex
Buñuel had the idea, Carrière finished it off: 'The words and the thing' is a walk through the erotic possibilities of our language. Two geniuses against prudishness.
June 2, 2016 20:25

The writer Jean-Claude Carrière tells in The Words and the Thing (Blackie Books) that Luis Buñuel trained his sons' imagination on a daily basis. He said that it was like a muscle to exercise against mediocrity. "Imagine that you are a mussel. How would you think? How would you fall in love? What vision of the world would you have?" the filmmaker suggested to his son Rafael. One day, Buñuel invited Carrière and Rafael to make a list of synonyms or euphemisms for the word "dick", each in their native language. That is, Rafael in English, Luis in Spanish and Carrière in French. The latter won, of course, but without any merit, because, as he himself acknowledged, "my language in this field is inexhaustible."

A few days after the creation of the catalogue of obscenities, Carrière met an old actress friend who, in order to survive in New York, was forced to work as a dubber of porn films. She explained, overwhelmed, that the worst part of her job was not the hyperventilation or the range of moans, gasps or labored breathing of false ecstasy. The worst part was repeating the same worn-out words, the same overused and ordinary sexual terms, to the point of nausea.

One day, Buñuel invited Carrière and Rafael to make a list of synonyms or euphemisms for the word "dick", each in their native language.

Relating these two episodes, the writer gave birth to Les mots et la chose, a text he has worked on for some 25 years. The story became a play, and was on the verge of becoming a film - David Trueba began to script it for a film version starring the fascinating Fernando Fernán Gómez, but the red-haired genius died before then.

Now this classic from France has arrived in Spain thanks to Ricard Borrás's adaptation. It is nothing but a confirmation that our language is beautiful, broad, ambitious, lustful, sharp, funny, suggestive... and, of course, penetrating. Language belongs to those who use it, those who invent it and those who respect it. Those who let themselves be carried away by its possibilities and are not ashamed. Those who free themselves from decorum, modesty and prudishness and speak openly. What does the word "cunt" have to envy the word "friendship", as Borrás says. Vocabulary - well understood - does not limit. It broadens life.

The clitoris by its names
According to Carrière, the clitoris can be called "bean", "tongue", "pearl". "Pepitilla", "bottom mouth", "lips". Or "secret button", as Vicente Alexaindre said. "The cream bun" - "which can be eaten like 'la rosca' or 'el roscón', is appetizing, especially when it is a little warm," smiles Carrière -, the "fair sex", "the chumino", "the subway entrance", and, if it is paid, "the toll". "The little treasure", "the eternal scar", "the Pope's rump" - in reference to the Vatican grottos where the pontiffs are buried -, among others. Valle-Inclán wrote: "Turbulent wasp / that flies in your flower!".

As for the sexual act, it is important to know that "fucking", in the beginning, meant "to stomp the grape". Beyond "endiñar", "mojar" and "emujar", there is "deshollinar", "encañutar", "enmudar", "verar el parroquia", "dar pienso", "put the baby Jesus in the manger" -if they are going to be Christmassy-, "put her out of the mosquitoes" -as they say in some warm countries- or "menear". In Senegal, instead of saying "my brother-in-law", they say simply: "Look, this is the man who shakes my sister".

"Reaching the summum", "feeling the flickering tickle" -that's what Samaniego said-, "roasting the bacon in the oven", "watering the patio" or even the suburban -and quite unpleasant- expression of "piercing the turkey until it dies of pleasure". They also call it "the bread of the poor": almost romantic. Salvador Dalí referred to it as "using the sewing machine" and García Lorca, "riding the mare": "That night I ran / the best of roads / mounted on the mother-of-pearl mare / without bridles and without stirrups."

As for the penis, even Lope de Vega himself wrote in Fuenteovejuna: "I am, although a cock, too hard for your reverence." There is life beyond the boring "phallus": how about "the goldfinch", "the Archidona cock", "the garrota", "the finger without a nail", "the spout to drink without thirst" or "the Castilian blood sausage"? In its saddest version, it can be called "the syringe with a toupee", "the asparagus" or "the pickle between two olives". With "a good steak", things get serious. "White sausage", "the ox cock", and "the cigar with a moustache" until ending up with "the one that grows big". "The Olympic torch" already sounds like a boast.

Fellatio and cunnilingus
Oral sex can be called -for a change- "slurping the aperitif", "licking the lollipop", "swallowing the smoke", "gobbling the whiting", "beating the egg white until stiff". In ancient Rome it was said "taking a man in liquid form". Cunnilingus sounds more fun if you "take little bites on the love button", "curl your moustache", "soften the bean" or -if we get into regionalisms- "savouring the Galician clam near the Rías Bajas" or "eating Alava potatoes at the Valdegovía fair".

In all this, what should you say during sex, if you like to say anything? Carrière recommends using the expressions "look at me" and "talk to me", because "the look and the word are elements without which eroticism lacks something essential." Then he suggests "blow me up", "kill me", "I'm dying", "I feel you everywhere", "hit me hard", "what are you doing to me?", and an endless etcetera. Ah, le petite mort, as the French call orgasm.

It would be inappropriate to end this article without referring to masturbation. "Having your hands full", "playing silent", "playing a gayola or a little German", "polishing the minaret", "shining the coppers". Long live self-love, selfish ecstasy. The author says that he met a man from the village who, when he was about to "jerk off", said "I'm going to shake hands with the father of my children."

1. How is sexuality taught in your environment?
Sexuality in my environment is usually taught informally, through conversations with friends or family. Although there are sexual education programs in schools, they are often limited and do not cover all aspects, such as consent and sexual diversity.

2. What do you think influences attitudes about sex the most: family, religion, or the media?
In my environment, religion and family are the strongest influences on perceptions about sex. However, social media and the media also play a growing role, especially among young people.

3. What are the cultural differences in the way sex is perceived between your country and others?
In my country, sex is still a somewhat taboo subject, especially in more conservative communities, while in other more urban or liberal Latin American countries, conversations about sex are more open and accepted.

4. What do you think about comprehensive sexual education?
I believe that comprehensive sexual education is essential to prepare young people and provide them with adequate information about their bodies, relationships, and health. It should include not only biology, but also topics such as consent and sexual diversity.

5. What is the perception of sexual diversity in your country?
In general, sexual diversity has gained greater acceptance in urban areas, but in rural or more conservative areas it is still viewed with suspicion. However, a gradual shift towards greater inclusion is being seen.

6. What sexual taboos still exist in your community?
In my community, openly talking about topics such as sex outside of marriage, homosexuality, and the use of contraceptives is still taboo. Although this is slowly changing, especially among younger generations.

7. How is the topic of consent handled in your country?
Consent is a topic that is just beginning to be discussed seriously in my country. Educational campaigns have begun to highlight its importance, but there is still a lot of education needed to fully understand its relevance in relationships.

8. What role do religious beliefs play in the perception of sexuality in your culture?
Religion still plays a major role in how sexuality is perceived in my culture. Topics such as sex before marriage or homosexual relationships are viewed negatively by many people who strictly follow their religious beliefs.

9. How does pornography affect sexual expectations in today's society?
Pornography creates unrealistic expectations about sex, especially among young people. In my environment, there is little education to counteract these ideas and this can lead to misinformation and unhealthy expectations about sexual relationships.

10. What role does social media play in conversations about sex among young people?
Social media has allowed young people to talk about sex more openly and seek out information that they do not find at home or at school. However, it can also spread myths or misconceptions about sexuality.

11. How has the concept of masculinity and femininity changed in terms of sexuality?
Today, traditional gender roles are being questioned more. Men are starting to feel that they don't need to be so "macho," and women have more freedom to express their sexual desire without being judged so harshly.

12. What sexual myths are common in your country?
One of the most common myths in my country is that the use of contraceptives negatively affects health or that masturbation can cause physical harm. Despite the availability of information, these myths continue to circulate.

13. How important is sexual health care in your life?
I give a lot of importance to sexual health, especially in terms of disease prevention and contraceptive use. The availability of sexual health clinics is key, although it is sometimes difficult to access them without prejudice.

14. How is the use of contraceptives perceived in your community?
The use of contraceptives is more accepted in cities, but in rural areas or more conservative communities, it is still viewed with certain prejudices. Contraceptive use is sometimes associated with promiscuity, which prevents its proper use.

15. Are there specific rituals or customs related to sexuality in your culture?
In some indigenous or more traditional communities in my country, there are still rituals that are related to fertility and marriage. However, in urban areas, these practices are less common.


Interesting facts about sexuality in Latin America:

Generational change: In recent decades, younger generations have been more open and progressive regarding sexual issues in many Latin American countries. This contrasts with older generations, where sex was considered more taboo.

Sexual diversity: Many countries in Latin America have made considerable progress in accepting the LGBTQ+ community, especially in large cities. However, in rural or more conservative areas, sexual diversity still faces cultural and religious resistance.

Sexual education: Sexual education in Latin America varies significantly. In countries such as Uruguay and Argentina, comprehensive sexual education programs have been implemented, while in other countries such as Guatemala or El Salvador, sexuality issues are barely addressed in schools.

Religion and sexuality: The influence of the Catholic Church and other religions remains significant on issues of sexuality, especially regarding marriage, sex before marriage, and the use of contraceptives.

Local slang and expressions about sexuality:

Here is a more extensive vocabulary of colloquial expressions used in various countries in the hemisphere:

Mexico:

"Fajarse": To kiss passionately or be in an intimate situation without reaching full sex.

"Dar el sí": To consent or agree to have sex.

"Andar en el chacoteo": To be in a playful or flirtatious situation that can lead to something more intimate.

"Echarse un rapidín": To have sex quickly.

Argentina:

"Ponerla": To have sex (generally used by men).

"Transar": To kiss or have something more with someone, although it can include sexual relations.

"Pajearse": To masturbate.

"Estar al palo": To be sexually excited.

Colombia:

"Jalarse una paja": To masturbate.

"Rematar la noche": To have sex at the end of a night out or party.

"Tirar los perros": To flirt openly.

"Echarse un polvo": To have sexual relations (used colloquially).

Venezuela:

"Ser un tirapiedras": To flirt a lot or try to flirt with several people.

"Pegar cacho": To be unfaithful.

"Cachondo/a": A person with a strong sexual desire.

"Estar en candela": To be very active or interested sexually.

Chile:

"Pinchar": To flirt or have a casual romance.

"Tirarse un lance": To try something romantic or sexual with someone.

"Estar caliente": To feel a strong sexual desire.

"Echarse una canita al aire": To have an adventure or sexual relationship outside of a serious relationship.

Puerto Rico:

"Zafarse": To have sporadic or uncommitted sexual relations.

"Bellaco/a": A person who feels a lot of sexual desire.

"Chingar": To have sex (colloquial, but commonly used).

"Estar enchula'o": To be madly attracted to or in love with someone, usually with a sexual connotation.

Cuba:

"Guariconero": A man who seeks relationships with younger women.

"Fajar": To have a fight, but can also be used for an intimate or sexual relationship.

"Echar un palito": To have quick and casual sex.

Words and Phrases:

1. "Tirar" - Used in several countries such as Argentina, Uruguay and Mexico to refer to having sex. Example: "Anoche tiramos."

2. "Fajar" - In Mexico and Central America, it means to kiss or caress passionately.

3. "Apretón" - Refers to an intimate encounter or passionate kiss in some countries such as Guatemala.

4. "Polvo" - In Mexico and Colombia, it means to have sex. Example: "Echamos un polvo."

5. "Chingar" - Used in Mexico with several meanings, depending on the context it can be having sex or bothering someone.

6. "Coger" - In many countries such as Mexico and Colombia, it means to have sex, but in others such as Argentina, it simply means "to grab."

7. "Ponerle" - In countries such as Chile or Argentina, it means to have sex. Example: "Es están ponerle todo la noche."

8. "Enrollarse" - Used in Spain and some Latin American countries, it means to have a romantic or sexual encounter.

9. "Ficcion" - In Argentina, it is used in a humorous way to refer to having sex, as if it were part of a "fiction."

10. "Parchar" - In Colombia, it means to be with someone, to go out or to have sex. Example: "Vamos a parchar."

11. "Garchar" - Argentine, to refer to having sexual relations.

12. "Darse cariño" - Used euphemistically to talk about an intimate encounter, in several countries.

13. "Aventón" - In Mexico and Central America, it can be used as a light reference to a quick sexual encounter.

14. "Quedarse pegado" - In Chile, it means to be very emotionally involved or in a sexual relationship.

15. "Enterle" - Used in several countries to refer to moving forward in an intimate relationship. Example: "He entered without thinking about it."

16. "Tirar los perros" - Used in many countries to refer to flirting or trying to seduce someone.

17. "Matar la fiebre" - Used in Venezuela to refer to satisfying a sexual desire.

18. "Ponerse de cariñito" - Euphemism used in Mexico and other countries to refer to physical or sexual contact in a gentle way.

19. "Comerse" - In several countries, such as Argentina and Colombia, it refers to kissing or having an intimate encounter. Example: "Se la comió."

20. "Hacer el delicioso" - A very common humorous phrase on social networks to refer to the sexual act in a funny way.

21. "Calentura" - Used to describe sexual desire. Example: "Tiene una calentura que no tetar más."

22. "Arrimón" - In Mexico, it describes physical contact that is not necessarily consensual in spaces full of people.

23. "Echar pasión" - Used in Mexico to refer to a passionate intimate encounter.

24. "Romper la cama" - Colloquial phrase indicating a very intense sexual encounter, used in several countries such as Argentina and Mexico.

25. "Picaflor" - In Peru, Argentina and other countries, it describes a person who goes from one relationship to another without making a commitment.

Slang Related to Sexuality and Relationships:

1. "Andar de coscolino/a" - In Mexico, it refers to a person who is looking to flirt or have casual encounters.

2. "Estar en modo caliente" - Used on social media to refer to someone who is especially interested in sex at that moment.

3. "Ser un gallo" - In some countries such as Chile, it describes a very sexually active person.

4. "Tener ganitas" - A soft expression to refer to having sexual desire.

5. “Pasar la noche juntos” – Euphemism used to refer to a night of intimate relations.

6. “Andar suelto” – Phrase used to refer to someone who is not in a relationship and is looking for casual encounters.

7. “Buscar acción” – Common phrase in several countries, meaning someone is looking to have a sexual encounter.

8. “Hacer travesuras” – Used in Mexico and other countries to refer to the sexual act in a playful or casual way.

9. “Meter mano” – Means to caress in an intimate way, in contexts of foreplay. Used in several countries such as Spain, Mexico and Colombia.

Words and Phrases:

1. "Tirar" - Used in several countries such as Argentina, Uruguay and Mexico to refer to having sex. Example: "Anoche tiramos."

2. "Fajar" - In Mexico and Central America, it means to kiss or caress passionately.

3. "Apretón" - Refers to an intimate encounter or passionate kiss in some countries such as Guatemala.

4. "Polvo" - In Mexico and Colombia, it means to have sex. Example: "Echamos un polvo."

5. "Chingar" - Used in Mexico with several meanings, depending on the context it can be having sex or bothering someone.

6. "Coger" - In many countries such as Mexico and Colombia, it means to have sex, but in others such as Argentina, it simply means "to grab."

7. "Ponerle" - In countries such as Chile or Argentina, it means to have sex. Example: "Es están ponerle todo la noche."

8. "Enrollarse" - Used in Spain and some Latin American countries, it means to have a romantic or sexual encounter.

9. "Ficcion" - In Argentina, it is used in a humorous way to refer to having sex, as if it were part of a "fiction."

10. "Parchar" - In Colombia, it means to be with someone, to go out or to have sex. Example: "Vamos a parchar."

11. "Garchar" - Argentine, to refer to having sexual relations.

12. "Darse cariño" - Used euphemistically to talk about an intimate encounter, in several countries.

13. "Aventón" - In Mexico and Central America, it can be used as a light reference to a quick sexual encounter.

14. "Quedarse pegado" - In Chile, it means to be very emotionally involved or in a sexual relationship.

15. "Enterle" - Used in several countries to refer to moving forward in an intimate relationship. Example: "He entered without thinking about it."

16. "Tirar los perros" - Used in many countries to refer to flirting or trying to seduce someone.

17. "Matar la fiebre" - Used in Venezuela to refer to satisfying a sexual desire.

18. "Ponerse de cariñito" - Euphemism used in Mexico and other countries to refer to physical or sexual contact in a gentle way.

19. "Comerse" - In several countries, such as Argentina and Colombia, it refers to kissing or having an intimate encounter. Example: "Se la comió."

20. "Hacer el delicioso" - A very common humorous phrase on social networks to refer to the sexual act in a funny way.

21. "Calentura" - Used to describe sexual desire. Example: "Tiene una calentura que no tetar más."

22. "Arrimón" - In Mexico, it describes physical contact that is not necessarily consensual in spaces full of people.

23. "Echar pasión" - Used in Mexico to refer to a passionate intimate encounter.

24. "Romper la cama" - Colloquial phrase indicating a very intense sexual encounter, used in several countries such as Argentina and Mexico.

25. "Picaflor" - In Peru, Argentina and other countries, it describes a person who goes from one relationship to another without making a commitment.

Slang Related to Sexuality and Relationships:

1. "Andar de coscolino/a" - In Mexico, it refers to a person who is looking to flirt or have casual encounters.

2. "Estar en modo caliente" - Used on social media to refer to someone who is especially interested in sex at that moment.

3. "Ser un gallo" - In some countries such as Chile, it describes a very sexually active person.

4. "Tener ganitas" - A soft expression to refer to having sexual desire.

5. “Pasar la noche juntos” – Euphemism used to refer to a night of intimate relations.

6. “Andar suelto” – Phrase used to refer to someone who is not in a relationship and is looking for casual encounters.

7. “Buscar acción” – Common phrase in several countries, meaning someone is looking to have a sexual encounter.

8. “Hacer travesuras” – Used in Mexico and other countries to refer to the sexual act in a playful or casual way.

9. “Meter mano” – Means to caress in an intimate way, in contexts of foreplay. Used in several countries such as Spain, Mexico and Colombia.


Conclusión:

Sex talk in Latin America varies widely depending on culture, country, generation, and religious influences. However, over time, new generations are opening up more spaces to talk about sexuality issues with fewer taboos and with a greater focus on sexual education, LGBTQ+ rights, and the importance of consent.

Vocabulary related to sexuality is also broad and reflects cultural diversity. Local expressions vary by country and can be used in a humorous or light-hearted way to address topics that may still be sensitive in certain contexts.


The other side of paradise: the aggressions of tourism
Photographer Marina Planas presents an installation in Italy in which she analyses the impact of the leisure industry in places that have become destinations for millions of people, including Mallorca


That the life and enjoyment of some is clearly built on the loss of others is something that the researcher and visual artist Marina Planas (Palma, 1983) seems to have very clear. Over the last few years, she has shaped a project that delves into the use and abuse of those places that have become a leisure destination for millions of people, in general, and in particular in her homeland: Mallorca. Under the title Bellicose Approaches to Tourism: All Inclusive, the installation was selected by the Institute of Balearic Studies to be exhibited as part of the Cortona on the Move photography festival, which under the motto More or Less is celebrating its thirteenth edition in the Italian town of Cortona until October.

This is a reproduction of one of the postcards made by the artist's grandfather, Josep Planas i Montayà, who in 1949 started a photography company in Mallorca that he ran for more than three decades. “He introduced the concept of industrial photography to the island and had a monopoly on postcards,” says his granddaughter. “He worked hand in hand with the Fomento de Turismo to promote the island as a tourist destination at a time when Franco's developmental regime was opening doors to Europe and the only thing it had to offer was sun and beach. Mallorca was the guinea pig for what would later be reproduced in more distant places, such as Asia or Latin America. All the iconography made to attract tourists to the area is made by my family. It is not something to be proud of,” adds the author sarcastically. “In addition to Casa Planas' own production, my grandfather was a collector. In total, the archive contains nearly three million images dedicated to tourism. We have not found another similar one anywhere in the world.”

Heir to the same drive to collect, archive and accumulate as her grandfather, Planas was commissioned by the Museu d’Art Contemporani Es Baluard Foundation to develop a project that would delve into the crisis generated by tourism. So she added to the images in the family archive others found on the Internet. “I stopped taking photographs and making videos with an artistic intention a long time ago,” the author highlights. “It made no sense to add more images to a world that generates so many a day. I use those that already exist in order to recontextualize them and reflect on their exploitation.” Thus, in the installation that she presents in Cortona there are also appropriated photographs that allow a reading from the present and contribute to showing the evolution of the tourist boom. A transformation that is analyzed from the different aspects in which tensions have been generated.

In 1948, the universality of the right to rest was recognized. “After the Second World War, southern Europe became the playground of the north, and Mallorca, with its beaches and sunny weather, became one of the favourite destinations,” says Planas. The term Balearisation was soon coined to describe the transformation of the island’s coastline as a result of wild urbanisation and the excessive tourist boom in the area. “Today’s cathedrals are shopping centres, theme parks and tourist facilities of all kinds,” says a text signed by Carmelo Vega, which refers to leisure consumption as the new religion of a desacralised society. “The first tourist boom (until 1973) had a great impact on coastal areas,” warns Planas. “In the second, people began to buy apartments; a form of colonisation that drives locals out of their area, without ceasing. Prices have increased, so that it is extremely expensive to buy a house on the island for the working class, while it attracts wealthy people from all over the world. “The whole business revolves around a real estate bubble,” adds the artist.

“Then came the gigantic cruise ships and at the same time rural tourism was established based on the consumption of natural resources. When we thought that we could not go any further, Airbnb emerged. A phenomenon capable of generating a value of 31 billion dollars with only a workforce of about 2,500 workers,” stresses Planas. “Life in the city centre has become something frankly difficult for locals while the city loses its identity to globalise. When territorial identity is annihilated, we lose history, memory, life.”

Inequality, in its different forms, is analysed transversally. “At the base of the functioning of tourism there are many women with miserable salaries. Women like cleaners, who will never appear on any postcard. On the other hand, waiters serving do,” warns Planas. Reference is also made to the sex industry in places such as Thailand, where brothels used during the Vietnam War were converted into businesses for sexual tourism.

The expansion of multinationals, in many cases subsidized by the state, in order to generate a tourist network in the area, as in the case of low-cost airlines, is also reflected in the project. As is urban planning, which in many cases is carried out under the interests of private companies. “Many roads or beaches have become private,” says the author. “That is why I often refer to accumulation by dispossession.” The environmental consequences could not be left out. “Tourism is one of the most polluting industries and the island’s economy is centered on it,


1. What factors contribute to the increase in tourist attacks in Italy?
Italy experiences a high number of tourists annually, especially in cities such as Rome, Florence and Venice. This massive influx of visitors creates an opportunity for criminals, mainly pickpockets and scammers, who target areas of high concentration. Factors such as insufficient surveillance in historic areas and high tourist density contribute to the problem. In addition, the underground economy in Italy facilitates the emergence of fraudulent tour guides and operators who exploit visitors.

2. What types of crimes are most common against tourists in Spain?
In Spain, the most common crimes are pickpocketing, especially in large tourist cities such as Barcelona and Madrid. Tourists are often victims of pickpockets in busy areas such as La Rambla in Barcelona or Puerta del Sol in Madrid. There are also scams involving taxis, restaurants and fraudulent accommodation rentals. Despite these problems, Spain has increased its police presence in these areas to deter criminals.

3. What are the differences between attacks on tourists in Italy and other European countries?
Italy, compared to countries like France or Germany, has a higher incidence of pickpocketing, especially at iconic tourist sites like the Colosseum or the Trevi Fountain. France, on the other hand, faces similar problems in Paris, where tourists are commonly attacked by pickpockets near the Eiffel Tower and the Louvre. However, in Germany, violent crimes against tourists are less common and scams related to tourist services are relatively low.

4. What measures are Italian authorities taking to reduce crimes against tourists?
In Italy, authorities have implemented several measures, such as increased police surveillance in tourist areas and installing security cameras in crowded places. In addition, they have launched awareness campaigns to educate tourists on how to protect their belongings and avoid scams. In Rome, for example, the police offer free maps that include information on the most risky areas and safety tips.

5. How does Italy's economy affect the problem of tourist crime?
The Italian economy, particularly in areas with a high dependence on tourism, has encouraged the proliferation of illicit activities. In some cities, the lack of economic opportunities has led citizens to resort to petty theft or scams to survive. In addition, mass tourism has generated a parallel economy in which unlicensed street vendors operate, often deceiving tourists with counterfeit or overpriced goods.

6. What are the most dangerous areas for tourists in Spain?
The most dangerous areas in terms of theft and scams in Spain include tourist neighborhoods in Barcelona, ??such as El Raval and La Barceloneta, and in Madrid, areas such as Plaza Mayor and Gran Via. Although these places are highly attractive to visitors, they are also preferred by pickpockets. The police have reinforced their presence in these areas, but tourists must be alert at all times.

7. What role do major tourist events play in the increase in attacks on tourists in Italy?
Major tourist events, such as the Venice Carnival or Holy Week in Rome, attract millions of visitors, creating an environment conducive to petty crime. During these events, the focus of authorities is often on crowd management, leaving more room for pickpockets and scammers. To mitigate this, special security operations have been implemented during these periods, but tourists are still vulnerable.

8. What are the main differences between the crimes suffered by tourists in Italy and Spain?
In Italy, crimes against tourists are usually more related to organised scams, such as fake tours, unlicensed guides and inflated fares in taxis and restaurants. In Spain, the most common crimes are thefts of personal items, especially in places with a lot of tourist activity. However, both countries share the problem of mass tourism, which makes effective security control difficult.

9. What role do technology apps play in preventing attacks on tourists in Italy and Spain?
In both countries, technology apps are beginning to play a crucial role in crime prevention. In Italy, tourist safety apps have been launched that allow visitors to know the areas most at risk and quickly contact the authorities. In Spain, apps such as "My112" allow tourists to report emergencies and get assistance in real time.

10. Are there differences in the perception of safety between tourists visiting Italy and those visiting Spain?
Yes, tourists tend to perceive Spain as a safer country than Italy, especially due to the implementation of greater security measures in cities such as Madrid and Barcelona. Although both nations face crime problems, Italy's reputation has been more affected by the prevalence of scams and theft in key tourist areas.

11. How are tourist agencies in Italy responding to safety concerns?
Tourist agencies in Italy are collaborating with local authorities to increase security in the most visited areas. In addition, they have implemented warning systems for tourists about potential risks, and are even training tour guides to act as crime prevention agents, informing tourists about how to protect themselves.

12. What effect does tourist overcrowding have on crime in cities like Rome or Barcelona?
Mass tourism creates large concentrations of people, making it easier for criminals to operate undetected. In Rome, for example, areas like the Vatican and the Trevi Fountain are so packed with visitors that it is easy for pickpockets to blend into the crowd. In Barcelona, ??places like La Sagrada Familia suffer from similar problems, leading to an increase in theft incidents.

13. What recommendations do security experts make for tourists visiting Italy and Spain?
Experts recommend always being vigilant about belongings, avoiding displaying valuables in public, and using anti-theft bags in busy tourist areas. In addition, it is advised to be especially alert at train stations and subways, where many pickpockets operate. They also suggest using official taxis and checking fares before using tourist services.

14. What economic impacts do tourist attacks have on the tourism industry in Italy and Spain?
Robberies and scams can negatively affect the perception of safety in both countries, which could reduce the number of tourists. Although both destinations remain very popular, repeated attacks can decrease visitor confidence and affect the industry in the long term, especially if stricter measures are not implemented.

15. What actions can tourists take to avoid being victims of attacks in Italy and Spain?
Tourists should plan ahead, familiarize themselves with the safest areas, avoid overly crowded areas during major events, and always be aware of their belongings. It is also advisable to use safe payment methods and avoid carrying large sums of cash. In addition, using official and well-reviewed tourist services can significantly reduce the risk of being scammed.

1. High rates of robbery in Latin America

Cities such as Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Lima and Bogotá have high rates of robbery of tourists, especially in crowded areas and tourist centers. As in cities such as Rome or Barcelona, ??pickpockets are a constant threat, but in Latin America, armed robbery is also a greater concern.

2. Higher violence in crimes in Latin America

Unlike Italy and Spain, where most crimes against tourists are non-violent (such as pickpocketing), in Latin America there is a higher prevalence of violent robberies and express kidnappings. Countries such as Brazil and Mexico have significant reports of violent attacks on tourists in urban and rural areas.

3. Mass tourism destinations and risk

Both in Europe and Latin America, destinations with high mass tourism present greater risks. In Europe, Venice or Paris see a large volume of tourists, but in Latin America destinations such as Rio de Janeiro and Cancun attract international tourists, who are frequent targets of robbery, express kidnappings and fraud.

4. Increase in express kidnappings in Latin America

In cities in Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, express kidnappings have become a threat to tourists, where victims are forced to withdraw money from ATMs. This type of crime is much less common in European tourist destinations such as Italy and Spain.

5. Cybercrime and card fraud

In both Latin America and Europe, tourists are vulnerable to cybercrime. In countries such as Mexico and Brazil, numerous cases of credit card cloning are reported, which also occurs in European cities such as Rome, where tourists are targeted by fraud with unsecured ATMs.

6. Perception of security among tourists

The perception of security varies greatly between tourists visiting Europe and Latin America. In destinations such as Spain and Italy, tourists often feel relatively safe compared to Latin America, where warnings about kidnappings, violence and dangerous areas are more frequent.

7. Crime in rural and urban areas

In Latin America, tourists are most at risk in urban areas such as Mexico City, Lima or Rio de Janeiro, but also in rural or ecotourism areas, where they may face violent robberies. In contrast, in Europe, rural areas are generally safer, although tourists should also take precautions in major cities.

8. Economic impact of crime on tourism

Crime affects the tourism industry in both regions. Countries such as Brazil and Mexico have experienced temporary declines in tourism due to the perception of insecurity, while in Europe, cities such as Barcelona and Rome have strengthened security measures to mitigate the threat of crimes against tourists.

9. Using technology for tourist safety

In Latin America, some cities have implemented technology to improve security, such as the use of surveillance cameras and mobile applications that alert about dangerous areas, a strategy also adopted in European cities such as Barcelona, ??which has developed real-time crime reporting systems.

10. International collaboration in tourist security

Both in Latin America and Europe, governments are working in collaboration with international organizations to improve tourist security. In Brazil, initiatives have been launched to train police in dealing with tourists, while in Spain, security forces are collaborating with Interpol to combat crimes against tourists.

MEMES

 

Image 1: Latin America when you visit it as a tourist
Image 2: Latin America when you live there.
Now what are we going to do? The price of bread has gone up.

 
Image 1: One day I will have money to go to Cartagena to eat mojarra.
Image 2: There are 2 buttons. Option 1 = To go sell mojarra. Option 2 = Sell screws in Providencia

 
When you packed the wrong suitcase but learned your lesson.


 

7am to work - 7am ??to travel

 

Sustainable tourism - mass tourism

 

Tourists vs. Mexicans

 
 


 

When you take the photo vs when someone takes the photo of you

DIÁSPORAS

VENEZUELAN REGIONAL MIGRATION SITUATION The current political and economic situation in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Venezuela) has led to an unprecedented influx of migrants and refugees across the Latin American and Caribbean region. As of June 2024, more than 7.77 million Venezuelans are outside their home country, the second largest displacement in the world. Neighboring countries are responding to the human mobility situation with solidarity and hospitality, and have largely kept their doors open for migrants and refugees from Venezuela.

The majority of refugees and migrants from Venezuela reside in the region (6.59 million as of June 2024). Among the largest host countries are Colombia (2.9 million), Peru (1.5 million), Brazil, Ecuador and Chile.

Despite progress in regularizing and granting refugee status to Venezuelans, a large number of migrants and refugees do not have migration documents, thereby limiting access to social protection in some countries.

Venezuelan migrants and refugees are using a variety of migration routes, including land, sea and air. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the disruption of regular channels, many Venezuelans have resorted to using irregular routes to reach their destinations. Informal border crossings are often characterized by unsafe conditions and severe protection concerns, where people are increasingly exposed to human trafficking and other forms of violence.

The COVID-19 pandemic has added another layer of complexity to the displacement situation in the region. Widespread loss of jobs and sources of income has led to a further inability to ensure basic needs, such as food, shelter and other essential services. There is an increase in xenophobia and discrimination against Venezuelans, motivated by an erroneous perception of greater competition for jobs, criminalization and fear of the spread of the virus.

Migration trends in Latin America and the Caribbean
As detailed in our publication Migratory flows in Latin America and the Caribbean: statistics on permits for migrants, we have gone from being a region of emigration, where historically most people moved to Europe or to North American countries, to a region of much more complex internal migration flows. These are some of the main current migration flows in Latin America and the Caribbean:

The crisis in Venezuela has unleashed one of the largest human displacements in the world. As of June 2023, 7.3 million people had left the country and 6.1 million Venezuelan migrants resided in other countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, with 2.5 million Venezuelan migrants living in Colombia, 1.5 million in Peru and 500 thousand in Ecuador.
Since the 2010 earthquake, more than a million Haitians have left their country, some have settled in neighboring countries such as the Dominican Republic, while others have done so in countries such as Chile, the United States or Canada. Many of them, after several years in those countries, migrated again to other countries in search of new opportunities.
These new migratory flows in Latin America and the Caribbean generate particular challenges in some countries, for example, the Darien Gap has become a key point for migratory flows in the region and in 2022 alone more than 200 thousand people tried to cross the jungle that separates Colombia and Panama with the aim of reaching North America. Crossing the Darien is dangerous due to the characteristics of the jungle, but also because of the presence of criminal gangs that attack and take advantage of migrants.

In the Caribbean, diasporas are increasingly relevant. In countries such as Jamaica or Guyana, citizens living abroad represent (38%) and (56%) of the country's population and are a fundamental part of their economies, mainly thanks to remittances.

Migration in Latin America and the Caribbean
July 21, 2023 by Felipe Muñoz 4 Comments

Migration is one of the oldest processes in the history of humanity. For years, millions of people have moved around the world in search of new places to settle, populating and filling new regions with life. Migration enriches our lives and contributes to the economic and social development of destination communities.

According to data from the International Organization for Migration (IOM), in 2020 there were around 281 million migrants in the world, representing 3.6% of the population, more than double the migrant population of 1990. Beyond a phenomenon of mobility, migration is a human right recognized by Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which emphasizes that:

Everyone has the right to move freely and choose their residence within the territory of a State.
Everyone has the right to leave any country, including their own, and to return to their country.
Furthermore, the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) establishes 23 objectives “for action by States, reinforced by specific commitments, which aim to address the challenges related to current migration.” Along these lines, at the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), we work to support countries so that they can transform migration processes in Latin America and the Caribbean as an opportunity to boost their development.

Migration trends in Latin America and the Caribbean
As detailed in our publication Migratory flows in Latin America and the Caribbean: statistics on permits for migrants, we have gone from being a region of emigration, where historically most people moved to Europe or to North American countries, to a region of much more complex internal migration flows. These are some of the main current migration flows in Latin America and the Caribbean:

The crisis in Venezuela has unleashed one of the largest human displacements in the world. As of June 2023, 7.3 million people had left the country and 6.1 million Venezuelan migrants resided in other countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, with 2.5 million Venezuelan migrants living in Colombia, 1.5 million in Peru and 500,000 in Ecuador.

Since the 2010 earthquake, more than one million Haitians have left their country, some have settled in neighboring countries such as the Dominican Republic, while others have done so in countries such as Chile, the United States or Canada. Many of them, after several years in those countries, migrated again to other countries in search of new opportunities.

These new migratory flows in Latin America and the Caribbean generate particular challenges in some countries, for example, the Darien Gap has become a key point for migratory flows in the region and in 2022 alone more than 200,000 people tried to cross the jungle that separates Colombia and Panama with the aim of reaching North America. Crossing the Darien is dangerous due to the characteristics of the jungle, but also due to the presence of criminal gangs that attack and take advantage of migrants.

In the Caribbean, diasporas are increasingly important. In countries such as Jamaica or Guyana, citizens living abroad represent (38%) and (56%) of the country's population and are a fundamental part of their economies, mainly thanks to remittances.

Latin America and the Caribbean is changing thanks to its migrants
Migration as an opportunity for development for Latin America and the Caribbean
The new migration scenario in Latin America and the Caribbean presents important challenges to countries of origin, transit and host countries, but with the right policies and resources, migration can be an enormous opportunity for the development of the countries in our region.

In many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, migrants have ages, capacities and talents that allow them to contribute to the development of local economies and thus promote their well-being and that of the host communities. According to an IMF report, Venezuelan migration could have contributed between 0.1 and 0.25% to the economic growth of the main host countries between 2017 and 2022. In the Caribbean, for example, diasporas are a driving force of the economies of many countries.

Most people migrate in search of new and better economic opportunities and this directly impacts remittance shipments to Latin America and the Caribbean. For almost 20 years, remittances to the region have continued to increase, reaching an amount, in 2022 alone, of around $142 million dollars. We invite you to explore the data on remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean in 2022.

The best way to capitalize on the opportunities brought by the migration phenomenon is regularization. An example of this, at a regional level, is the Special Permit of Stay (PEP) in Colombia. The PEP impacted the lives of thousands of irregular Venezuelan migrants, who improved their quality of life by having better working conditions and expanding their access to services provided by the State.

Perceptions on migration in Latin America and the Caribbean
It is common for the massive arrival of migrants to generate fears and prejudices in the host countries. Data from our Citizen Perception and Migration Laboratory show that after a very generous response from governments and citizens in our region, the perception of migration is deteriorating in Latin America, which unfortunately has translated into an increase in xenophobia; these general numbers, however, hide certain nuances. On social media, for example, most conversations express a neutral feeling on the matter. There are also certain issues within the migration phenomenon that divide people's perceptions. People may feel more open to topics such as access to services and staying in the country, while being cautious about the impact of migration on security and employment.

The good news is that something can be done about it. A study between the IDB and the UNDP, which included 22,000 people in Barbados, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, the Dominican Republic and Trinidad and Tobago, managed to show that it is possible to improve people's perception of migration and contribute to breaking down prejudices associated with migrants.


Through reimbursable and non-reimbursable resources, the generation of knowledge, and technical assistance to countries, the IDB Migration Unit supports the Latin American and Caribbean region in building the necessary conditions for migration to be a driver of social and economic development. We hope that this article will be useful for those who are just approaching the topic, as well as for those who seek to delve deeper into it through the resources offered here.

Of the total 60.9 million new internal displacements recorded in 2021, 32.6 million were caused by disasters (IDMC, 2023). As of December 2022, at least 8.7 million people in 88 countries and territories were living in displacement as a result of disasters that occurred not only in 2022, but also in previous years (ibid.). This represents a 45 per cent increase in the total number of IDPs due to disasters compared to 2021 (ibid.)

The five countries with the highest number of new IDPs due to disasters were Pakistan (8.2 million), the Philippines (5.4 million), China (3.6 million), India (2.5 million) and Nigeria (2.5 million) (IDMC, 2023). 98 per cent of the 32.6 million new disaster displacements in 2022 were due to climate-related hazards such as storms, floods and droughts (ibid.). Floods will outnumber storms for the first time since 2016, causing 6 in 10 disaster-related internal displacements in 2022, and monsoon flooding in Pakistan caused 25 per cent of disaster-related internal displacements worldwide that year (ibid.). Somalia suffered its worst drought in 40 years, recording 1.1 million displacements (ibid.). In Tonga, 2 per cent of the population had to relocate following a very rare volcanic eruption (ibid.).

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic continues to affect internally displaced people around the world, particularly through loss of livelihoods and food insecurity (IDMC 2021; IDMC 2022; IDMC 2023). In addition, climate change is changing rainfall and temperature patterns and increasing the frequency and severity of extreme weather events in many parts of the world, all of which affect food security by reducing agricultural production (IPCC, 2022), leading to seasonal or permanent displacement of people from risk areas. Read more about food security and human mobility here.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that more than one billion people worldwide could be exposed to coastal-specific climate risks by 2050, potentially forcing tens or hundreds of millions of people to leave their homes in the coming decades (IOM, 2022; IPCC, 2022).

Slow-onset processes such as droughts and rising sea levels are also increasingly affecting people's mobility around the world. In this regard, the World Bank's two Groundswell reports have found that climate change could lead to 216 million people in six regions of the world (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Latin America, East Asia and the Pacific, North Africa, Eastern Europe and Central Asia) moving within their countries by 2050 if urgent measures are not taken to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

Comprehensive data sets on environmental migration or planned relocation do not yet exist globally, but several initiatives have begun to gather information in different countries. The following list provides an overview of the available information, including more qualitative research.

Primary data collections:

National authorities collect information on evacuations and displacements related to disasters, particularly sudden-onset disasters. Regarding local displacements caused by disasters, data can also be obtained from international and national humanitarian agencies (NGOs, UN agencies) involved in relief operations, which collect data to respond to the needs of affected populations. Planned relocation of communities in the context of environmental and climate change is increasingly carried out by governments, including in the Pacific, Asia and other destinations, involving multiple countries of origin and destination (Bower and Weerasinghe, 2021). For an overview of other planned relocations, see Ionesco, Mokhnacheva and Gemenne, 2016; Benton, 2017 and Georgetown University, UNHCR and IOM, 2017).

Administrative data sources, such as the number of humanitarian visas (e.g. in the United States of America, Brazil, Ecuador or Mexico) or residence permits (e.g. in Argentina) issued in the wake of a disaster, can provide information on displacement and cross-border movements in the context of environmental events more broadly.

IOM’s Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) is a system used to track and monitor disaster displacement and population mobility. Data, which can be disaggregated by gender and sex, are regularly collected, processed and disseminated to provide a better understanding of the changing movements and needs of displaced populations and migrants, whether in situ or en route, before, during and after disasters. The data are presented on the MDT Data Portal. A study of how current MDT practices collect data on human mobility in the context of environmental degradation, climate change and disasters, and also draws recommendations on how to improve current tools and practices. Recommendations include improving the focus of some MDT questions and increasing the number of options available for respondents to provide more granular data on the migration-environment-climate nexus (IOM, 2020).

The MDT Transhumance Monitoring Tool (TTT) is a tool developed by IOM to monitor transhumance movements and collect alerts related to agro-pastoral conflicts, in order to prevent and mitigate them.

Innovative data sources include mobile phone-based sources, such as detailed call records. Big data generated by mobile phone users before and after disasters, such as the 2010 earthquake in Haiti (Bengtsson et al., 2011) and several typhoons in the Philippines and Bangladesh (Lu et al., 2016), can indicate where people have moved and help to provide rapid and targeted humanitarian assistance or to understand internal movements (Laczko and Rango, 2014; Global Migration Group (GMG), 2017). This can be a way to gather complementary quantitative data on small-scale displacement and on seasonal patterns related to adaptation to environmental change and disasters, which are difficult to determine with traditional household survey tools (Lu et al., 2016). Other projects aim to use big data sources, such as satellite imagery or social media data, to detect environmental stressors that could lead to displacement at an early stage (see, for example, Isaacman et al., 2017).

Several research projects have gathered and continue to gather new data on the links between environment and human mobility, but they generally do not apply a comparative approach. There are three notable exceptions. First, the Migration, Environment and Climate Change: Evidence for Policymaking (MECLEP) project, which was implemented by IOM and six partner research centres in 2014-2017 with funding from the European Union and which conducted a comparative study – quantitative and qualitative – of six countries (Haiti, Kenya, Mauritius, Papua New Guinea, Dominican Republic and Viet Nam). The methodology developed for the project could easily be applied to other countries.

Second, the ILO-ESCAP-UNDP Pacific Climate Change and Migration (PCCM) project, which focused on Tuvalu, Nauru and Kiribati. The United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS) published detailed findings on how climate change is affecting these Pacific Island States.

Third, the HABITABLE project is an EU-funded project (2020-2024) that aims to significantly advance our understanding of the current interlinkages between climate impacts and migration and displacement patterns, and to better anticipate their future evolution. Led by the Hugo Observatory, the project brings together 21 partners from 18 countries and focuses on four regions: West Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa and South-East Asia.

Venezuelan Diaspora

The political, economic and social crisis that Venezuela has experienced in the last two decades has led to one of the largest diasporas in Latin America. It is estimated that more than 7 million Venezuelans have left the country since 2015, seeking better living conditions in countries such as Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile and the United States, among others. This mass migration is driven by hyperinflation, unemployment, food insecurity and the lack of basic services in Venezuela. International organizations have pointed out that the Venezuelan diaspora is one of the largest displacement crises in the world today.

Other historical diasporas

1. Jewish diaspora: One of the best known. Over the millennia, the Jewish people have experienced multiple waves of forced migration. It began with the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 AD by the Romans and continued throughout history with persecutions in Europe, especially in the Middle Ages and during the Holocaust in the 20th century. Today, large Jewish communities are located outside Israel, especially in the United States and Europe.

2. Forced African migration: The transatlantic slave trade (16th-19th centuries) resulted in the forced diaspora of millions of Africans to America. This migrant population was not only deprived of their freedom, but also of their cultural identity and human rights. African-descended diasporas in America continue to fight for equality and recognition of their cultural heritage.

3. Chinese diaspora: During the 19th and 20th centuries, poverty, unemployment and internal wars drove the mass migration of Chinese to Southeast Asia, America and Europe. Today, the Chinese diaspora is one of the most influential in the world, with communities in countries such as the United States, Canada, Malaysia and the Philippines.

4. Irish migration: In the 19th century, the Great Famine (1845-1849) in Ireland caused more than a million people to migrate mainly to the United States, Canada and Australia. Today, the Irish diaspora is notable, with a strong cultural presence in English-speaking countries.

5. Syrian and Lebanese migration: Due to war conflicts and religious persecution, millions of Syrians and Lebanese migrated to Latin America, Europe and the United States throughout the 20th century. Recently, the Syrian civil war has driven a new wave of massive migration to Europe.



Key questions about diasporas

1. What factors trigger diasporas? Diasporas can be caused by a combination of economic, political, social and environmental factors. Common factors include armed conflict, political or religious persecution, natural disasters and economic crises. A current example is the Venezuelan crisis, where poverty, hyperinflation and violence drive mass population outflows.

2. What impact do diasporas have on host countries? Diasporas can significantly influence host countries. At the economic level, they can fill job vacancies and contribute to GDP growth. At the social level, they enrich cultural diversity, although they can also generate tensions over access to resources and services. For example, in Colombia, the massive arrival of Venezuelans has created challenges in the health and employment system, but has also boosted the economy in some regions.

3. How does mass migration affect countries of origin? Mass migration can lead to the loss of human capital, also known as “brain drain,” which affects long-term economic development. However, remittances sent by migrants can be a vital source of income for families remaining in the country of origin. In the case of El Salvador, remittances represent a significant percentage of GDP.

4. What role do social media play in the lives of modern diasporas? Social media allows diasporas to stay connected with their families and communities in the country of origin. In addition, they serve for the organization of cultural events, mutual support, and political activism. The Venezuelan community abroad uses platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook to organize protests, share information about asylum, and stay connected with the situation in Venezuela.

5. How do diasporas influence international policies? Diasporas can influence the foreign policy of both countries of origin and destination. For example, Cubans in Miami have played a key role in U.S. policy toward Cuba. Diasporas can also influence migration and humanitarian policies, exerting pressure to improve the conditions of refugees or migrants in an irregular situation.

6. What are the most common challenges faced by diasporas? Challenges include discrimination, language barriers, lack of recognition of professional qualifications, and difficulties in integrating socially and economically in the host country. Syrian refugee communities in Europe, for example, face difficulties in integrating due to language and cultural barriers, as well as restrictive policies in some countries.

7. How do diasporas contribute to the development of their country of origin? Diasporas can be key agents in the development of their country of origin through remittances, investments, knowledge transfer, and political advocacy. One example of this is the remittances sent by the Philippine diaspora, which represent a significant part of the country's GDP.

Journalism and artificial intelligence in Latin America
In a context of exponential growth of artificial intelligence (AI) and technological predominance in all spheres of life – economic, social, cultural, environmental and political – this Notebook explores the impact of AI on journalism from a critical and ethical perspective, with special attention to Latin America.

The inequalities and challenges inherent to the implementation of AI in the region are addressed, seeking to offer a useful tool in the ongoing training of students and media professionals.

The first part, “Producing Quality AI News Coverage,” explores how journalists can maintain quality standards in the face of the rise of AI, addressing competition with marketing, the influence of science fiction narratives, and the application of AI ethical principles to news coverage. Critical tools and strategies are offered to analyze AI systems and evaluate their political, social, and cultural impacts.

The second part, “Use of AI in Latin American Newsrooms,” examines the growth and uses of AI in newsrooms, focusing on its role in content distribution and metrics analysis. Innovation in AI in the region’s media is highlighted.

Part 3, “Mapping AI Tools in Latin American Newsrooms,” presents a detailed mapping of AI tools developed by newsrooms in Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, and Peru. It includes cases and solutions for (dis)information checking, hate speech detectors, search engine optimization tools, generative artificial intelligence, and techniques to differentiate deepfakes.

Finally, Part 4, “Toolbox for Journalism in the Age of AI,” offers a series of resources available in AI and automation for various journalistic functions, from transcriptions and video editing to content creation and image and audio evaluation.

Journalism and Artificial Intelligence: future challenges

What the audience gains
Cabrera commented that it is very important for the media to know their audience, to know what demographics they cover, how old they are, what news they consume, and other data, will help, for example, to reach younger audiences who are open-minded to receive the news that uses these new technologies, since on TikTok there are phenomena where several media and journalists are using artificial intelligence to give real news.

Regarding the issue of audiences, Liuzzi commented that “there is an error in the narrative about how Artificial Intelligence is told in the media; the work behind artificial intelligence is made invisible, we talk about scientists, doctors, journalists who ask these algorithms, these natural language models, to do something. In that sense, I think that is an important point about how we tell it, it seems to me that this affects how society incorporates this technology and how it uses it.”

Ethics and journalism in times of artificial intelligence
“The ethical question arises when we are not making the use of these technologies transparent with our audiences,” said Tameez. In this regard, some media and agencies have published and updated their stylebooks sharing how they are using artificial intelligence, as the Associated Press has done, where it notes that “while AP staff may experiment with ChatGPT with caution, they do not use it to create publishable content. Any output from a generative AI tool should be treated as unexamined source material. AP staff must apply their editorial judgment and AP sourcing standards when considering any information for publication. In accordance with our standards, we do not modify any element of our photos, videos or audio. Therefore, we do not allow the use of generative AI to add or subtract any element.”

On the same subject, Liuzzi believes that stylebooks are key to the success of using AI in newsrooms. Likewise, he considers that training journalists in the use of these technologies is a substantial difference for the media. In this regard, El País has also shared how AI can be leveraged for journalism and is beginning an internal reflection to delimit the uses of tools such as Chat GPT in the Newsroom.

Explorations of the use of AI in journalism
With NAT, the presenter created with artificial intelligence from Radio Fórmula, “we are working, we did several tests on how to tropicalize the presenter's language, since we have the responsibility with our audiences to make the best product, as we do on the radio and as we do on TV,” shared Ricardo Muñoz.

“What comes next is a lot of work, we cannot be left out, we have to continue using these tools to inform the audience,” he adds.

On this subject, Liuzzi comments that “humans do not usually question what machines tell us, we are used to believing everything that a machine returns to us as a result. Faced with this, the solution is an old recipe of journalism: ethics, verification and research.”

“Speaking with Hanaa’ Tameez, Associated Press recently partnered with Open AI, the company behind Chat GPT, to train the algorithm with its verified news, a 40-year archive, and it seems to me that this can set an important precedent for the media industry where AI technology companies and media in particular can collaborate,” Liuzzi shared.

Future challenges
Without a doubt, artificial intelligence is transforming the journalism industry. The panelists agree on media literacy, educating audiences, as established by UNESCO, to “train and provide knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to collaborate with the media and new technologies.”

They also emphasize the importance of being transparent with audiences about how they are using AI to report. The style manuals and positions that some media have shared are some initiatives that shed light on how the journalism industry is using tools such as ChatGTP, Midjourney, PinPoint, Jasper, Descript, among others, in journalistic dynamics.

Journalists and media outlets also need to know how tools like GPT Chat and Google will transform their algorithms to offer results and answers sought by audiences and how this will disrupt newsrooms.

Universities and other educational centers that train and specialize journalists will play an important role in the use and implementation of AI in journalistic processes to streamline the routines of communication professionals and newsrooms: transcribing interviews, generating voices, analyzing large amounts of data, automating responses and managing comments, creating short notes, training virtual presenters, etc.

For journalists, the challenge is to reinvent themselves, to find opportunities in AI, just as it did with the arrival of television, the Internet, social networks and mobile phones.

What to do (and what not to do) to implement artificial intelligence in journalism?

How to use AI in journalism?
So, how can we implement AI in our work? In his talk, Valacco showed success stories from different parts of the world. First, the initiatives in which AI is used to gather information and find triggering data:

Text analysis: from optical character recognition (OCR) to read thousands of documents, as Quartz did with the Mauritius leaks; to the use of Google Pinpoint to analyze information stored in different formats (texts, audios and videos), as CIPER did in Papeles de la Dictadura. With the help of AI, media with few human and monetary resources can now carry out this type of investigation.
Computer vision: the Texty portal trained an AI to recognize possible illegal amber mines in a map of satellite images. With this type of AI, according to Valacco, image recognition can be used to propose novel coverage of environmental issues.
Fact-checking: Specialized media such as Chequeado have implemented AI in the different stages of their data verification process. For example, to automatically identify verifiable phrases, issue misinformation alerts and make real-time transcriptions.
Another group of examples shown by Valacco are related to the work of news production. These are:

Internal search engines: Some international media such as Public Radio of Sweden have an AI that allows searches and provides suggestions to its journalists based on the media's archives.
Categorization of information: within the framework of a JournalismAI project, The Guardian used machine learning to develop an AI that is capable of recognizing a quote in an audio.
Translation between languages ??and formats: OjoPúblico of Peru has developed Quispe Chequea, an AI that translates its fact checks into native languages; while Agencia Pública uses an AI to convert its articles from text to audio. Both initiatives allow the universe of its audiences to be expanded. News Summary: Clarín's UalterIA is a virtual assistant that offers readers a summary of published articles, through a consolidated paragraph, bulletpoints, tables with figures and frequently asked questions.

Finally, AI can also help journalism in the distribution of news, as in the following examples shown by the expert:

Recommendation systems: AI can analyze the profile of the user who visits our portals to provide better suggestions for news of interest.
Propensity models: how likely is it that a reader will subscribe to our media outlet? AI is also used in journalism to predict which users are most likely to pay for news content.
AI is not limited to these examples: it can also help us moderate comments and increase the productivity of the journalist as a writing assistant, a headline generator with better optimization for search engines, among others. In general, AI can take care of repetitive tasks and thus give the journalist more time to investigate and carry out other activities within the newsroom.

So, how do you start?
Valacco highlights what the examples shown have in common: they all started from a problem that the media needed to solve and, in that sense, AI turned out to be the most effective solution.

The expert provided a series of steps to develop your first AI project with journalism in your media outlet:

Define and study the problem to be solved. In some cases, AI will not be the best answer and its use could generate additional problems.

Identify the available resources. The examples shown are based on previous data, with which AI is trained or analyzed. That is why it is important to gather, understand, clean and structure the data and documents that our media outlet has. Likewise, it is important to recognize if we have the necessary experts and technological resources.

Research and inform yourself. It is important to expand our knowledge about AI, and for this knowledge to be distributed among the members of the editorial team. JournalismAi has a directory of consultants who can help us.

Assign responsibilities. “If we are all responsible for something, no one is responsible,” Valacco explained. For her, it is important to appoint leaders for the implementation, design and evaluation of AI in newsrooms.

Test and repeat. The expert recommends developing minimum viable products, testing them, evaluating their results and improving them.

Developing guidelines. Valacco proposes that media outlets write documents on how AI will be used. These guidelines should provide internal transparency, so that the editor understands how the tool works, and external transparency for readers; clear limits on the use of AI (for example, whether it is allowed to use AI to write texts from scratch); and ethical considerations.

Valacco’s final invitation is to generate reflective conversations among journalists about the possibilities and limits of AI, especially to discuss how we are going to mitigate the risks and concerns about this new technology that has arrived in newsrooms to stay.


Step 1: Define the Foundation of Your Characters

Before interacting with AI tools, it's crucial to have a clear idea of ??what you want for each character. This includes establishing the foundations that will define their identity and role in your project.

1.1. Establish the Character's Purpose

Role in the Story: Will they be the protagonist, antagonist, a supporting character, or serve another function?

Impact on the Plot: How will they influence the development of the story?

1.2. Basic Characteristics

Name: Choose a name that reflects the character's culture, personality, or background.

Age: Define the stage of life they occupy, which will influence their behavior and experiences.

Gender and Identity: Consider gender identity and how this can influence their character and relationships.

Occupation/Profession: Determine what they do in their daily life and how this affects their personality and abilities.

Personality: Define key traits such as being outgoing, introverted, brave, reserved, etc.

Context: Establish the environment in which they live, whether it is realistic, fantastical, futuristic, etc.

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Step 2: Use a Text Generation Tool (e.g. ChatGPT)

With a solid foundation, you can use an AI tool like ChatGPT to expand and enrich your characters. Here's how to do it for three different characters.

2.1. Create the First Character

Example: Elena, the Compassionate Doctor

1. Basic Description:

Prompt: "Create a character named Elena, a kind and dedicated 35-year-old doctor who works at a hospital in a large city."

2. Physical Details:

Prompt: "Describe Elena's physical appearance, including details about her hair, eyes, and usual clothing."

AI Response: "Elena has long, dark brown hair that is usually tied back in a practical ponytail for her work at the hospital. Her eyes are green and expressive, reflecting her compassion. She usually wears professional medical scrubs during the day, but in her free time she prefers comfortable, casual clothing, such as jeans and soft-colored t-shirts."

3. Personality and Motivations:

Prompt: "What are Elena's motivations and internal conflicts?"

AI Response: "Elena is deeply motivated by a desire to help others and make a difference in the lives of her patients. However, she struggles with emotional exhaustion and the constant pressure of work, which sometimes makes it difficult for her to maintain a healthy balance between her professional and personal life. In addition, she harbors a painful secret related to the loss of a loved one due to an illness that she was unable to save."

2.2. Create the Second Character

Example: Daniel, the Introverted Engineer

1. Basic Description:

Prompt: "Create a character named Daniel, a 28-year-old software engineer who is introverted and passionate about technology, working at an artificial intelligence startup."

2. Physical Details:

Prompt: "Describe Daniel's physical appearance, including details about his usual clothes and mannerisms."

AI Response: "Daniel is a 28-year-old with short, slightly messy black hair. He usually wears thin-framed glasses and prefers casual clothing, such as t-shirts with tech logos, jeans, and sneakers. He has a slightly hunched posture, reflecting his introverted nature, and is often seen focused on his laptop."

3. Personality and Motivations:

Prompt: "What are Daniel's motivations and internal conflicts?"

AI Response: "Daniel is motivated by innovation and a desire to create technology that improves people's lives. However, his introverted nature makes it difficult for him to communicate effectively with his colleagues, which sometimes leads to misunderstandings within the team. He also struggles with the pressure of meeting demanding deadlines at the startup, which causes him anxiety and stress."

2.3. Create the Third Character

Example: Maya, the Bohemian Artist

1. Basic Description:

Prompt: "Create a character named Maya, a 42-year-old, outgoing and creative artist who lives in a bohemian neighborhood of the city."


2. Physical Details:

Prompt: "Describe Maya's physical appearance, including details about her clothing style and accessories."

AI Response: "Maya is 42 years old and has a vibrant presence. Her hair is long and dyed in various colors, often tied back in elaborate braids. Her brown eyes sparkle with creativity and passion. She prefers eclectic and colorful clothing, mixing unique fabrics and patterns, complemented by eye-catching accessories such as large necklaces and handmade bracelets. She always carries a color palette and paintbrushes in her bag."

3. Personality and Motivations:

Prompt: "What are Maya's motivations and inner conflicts?"

AI Response: "Maya is driven by a need for artistic expression and a passion to inspire others through her art. However, she faces internal conflicts related to insecurity about her talent and fear that her art is not sufficiently valued. Additionally, she struggles to balance her creative life with her family responsibilities, which often creates tensions in her personal relationships."

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Step 3: Develop Relationships and Dynamics Between Characters

Interactions between characters enrich the story and give it depth. It is essential to define how they relate to each other.

3.1. Relationship between Elena and Daniel

Prompt: "Describe the relationship between Elena and Daniel. How do they meet and what kind of relationship do they have?"

AI Answer: "Elena and Daniel met at a medical technology networking event. Although their professions are different, they found a connection through their common interest in how technology can improve healthcare. Elena admires Daniel's ability to innovate, while Daniel respects Elena's dedication to her patients. Their relationship is primarily professional, but with moments of friendship where they share their challenges and aspirations."

3.2. Elena and Maya's relationship

Prompt: "Describe the relationship between Elena and Maya. Are they friends, rivals, colleagues?"

AI Answer: "Elena and Maya are childhood friends who reunited after several years. Although they have taken different paths in life, they maintain a strong emotional connection. Elena values ??Maya's creativity and optimism, while Maya appreciates Elena's empathy and determination. Their friendship is strengthened by their mutual support during difficult times, although they occasionally face challenges trying to balance their different priorities and lifestyles."

3.3. Daniel and Maya's Relationship

Prompt: "Describe the relationship between Daniel and Maya. Is there any tension or collaboration between them?"

IA Response: "Daniel and Maya have collaborated on projects where technology and art intersect, such as interactive gallery installations. While they have a positive professional relationship, there is some tension due to their different approaches: Daniel is meticulous and detail-oriented, while Maya is spontaneous and emotionally driven. This dynamic sometimes creates conflict, but also leads to unique creative results when they manage to balance their differences."

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Step 4: Create Narrative Arcs for Each Character

A well-defined narrative arc shows the evolution of a character throughout the story, including their challenges and growth.

4.1. Elena's Narrative Arc

Prompt: "Describe Elena's narrative arc throughout the story. How does she change and what challenges does she overcome?"

AI Response: "At the start of the story, Elena is dedicated but emotionally drained by her work at the hospital. As she faces a health crisis that tests her skills and resilience, she begins to question her limits and the sustainability of her career. Through her interactions with Daniel and Maya, she learns to delegate responsibilities and seek emotional support. Ultimately, Elena finds a balance between her professional and personal life, and discovers new ways to care for her well-being without compromising her passion for medicine."

4.2. Daniel's Narrative Arc

Prompt: "Describe Daniel's narrative arc. How does his character and goals evolve?"

AI Response: "Daniel starts out as an introverted engineer focused solely on his work, avoiding deep relationships. However, as he collaborates with Elena and Maya, he begins to open up and value the importance of communication and teamwork. He faces challenges that force him to overcome his social anxiety and lead projects with greater confidence. Ultimately, Daniel becomes a more empathetic and balanced leader, integrating his passion for technology with a renewed sense of personal purpose."

4.3. Maya's Narrative Arc

Prompt: "Describe Maya's narrative arc. What transformation does she experience throughout the story?"

AI's response: "Maya begins the story with a strong passion for her art but struggles with insecurities and balancing her creative and family life. As she collaborates with Elena and Daniel, she faces the possibility that her art can have a broader impact. She overcomes her fears by exposing her works to new audiences and learns to trust her abilities more. Additionally, she finds ways to integrate her family responsibilities with her creativity, allowing her to grow both personally and professionally."



TEMAS para Heydi para la edición "Urban Fun": Gondwana, Flaneurs, Selfies, Lenguaje sexual, Agresión, Memes, Diásporas, Periodismo de inteligencia artificial, Unidad Panamericana, el Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, México DF


Respuesta de IA: "Elena y Maya son amigas de la infancia que se reencontraron después de varios años. Aunque han tomado caminos diferentes en la vida, mantienen una fuerte conexión emocional. Elena valora la creatividad y el optimismo de Maya, mientras que Maya aprecia la empatía y la determinación de Elena. Su amistad se ve fortalecida por el apoyo mutuo en tiempos difíciles, aunque ocasionalmente enfrentan desafíos al intentar equilibrar sus diferentes prioridades y estilos de vida."


3.3. Relación entre Daniel y Maya

Prompt: "Describe la relación entre Daniel y Maya. ¿Hay alguna tensión o colaboración entre ellos?"

Respuesta de IA: "Daniel y Maya han colaborado en proyectos donde la tecnología y el arte se intersectan, como instalaciones interactivas en galerías. Aunque tienen una relación profesional positiva, existe cierta tensión debido a sus enfoques diferentes: Daniel es meticuloso y orientado a los detalles, mientras que Maya es espontánea y emocionalmente impulsiva. Esta dinámica a veces genera conflictos, pero también lleva a resultados creativos únicos cuando logran equilibrar sus diferencias."



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Paso 4: Crear Arcos Narrativos para Cada Personaje

Un arco narrativo bien definido muestra la evolución de un personaje a lo largo de la historia, incluyendo sus desafíos y crecimiento.

4.1. Arco Narrativo de Elena

Prompt: "Describe el arco narrativo de Elena a lo largo de la historia. ¿Cómo cambia y qué desafíos supera?"

Respuesta de IA: "Al inicio de la historia, Elena está dedicada pero emocionalmente agotada por su trabajo en el hospital. A medida que enfrenta una crisis sanitaria que pone a prueba sus habilidades y resistencia, comienza a cuestionar sus límites y la sostenibilidad de su carrera. A través de sus interacciones con Daniel y Maya, aprende a delegar responsabilidades y a buscar apoyo emocional. Al final, Elena encuentra un equilibrio entre su vida profesional y personal, y descubre nuevas formas de cuidar su bienestar sin comprometer su pasión por la medicina."


4.2. Arco Narrativo de Daniel

Prompt: "Describe el arco narrativo de Daniel. ¿Cómo evoluciona su carácter y sus objetivos?"

Respuesta de IA: "Daniel comienza como un ingeniero introvertido enfocado únicamente en su trabajo, evitando relaciones profundas. Sin embargo, al colaborar con Elena y Maya, empieza a abrirse y a valorar la importancia de la comunicación y el trabajo en equipo. Enfrenta desafíos que lo obligan a superar su ansiedad social y a liderar proyectos con mayor confianza. Al final, Daniel se convierte en un líder más empático y equilibrado, integrando su pasión por la tecnología con un sentido renovado de propósito personal."


4.3. Arco Narrativo de Maya

Prompt: "Describe el arco narrativo de Maya. ¿Qué transformación experimenta a lo largo de la historia?"

Respuesta de IA: "Maya inicia la historia con una fuerte pasión por su arte pero lucha con inseguridades y el equilibrio entre su vida creativa y familiar. A medida que colabora con Elena y Daniel, enfrenta la posibilidad de que su arte pueda tener un impacto más amplio. Supera sus miedos al exponer sus obras a nuevas audiencias y aprende a confiar más en sus habilidades. Además, encuentra formas de integrar sus responsabilidades familiares con su creatividad, lo que le permite crecer tanto personal como profesionalmente."

1. DALL·E (OpenAI): This AI model uses text descriptions to generate visual images of characters and objects. If you describe in detail aspects such as clothing type, hairstyle, facial expression, and even the environment, DALL·E generates an image that matches those characteristics. It is very useful for artists and designers looking for a quick and creative visualization of complex or abstract ideas.

2. Artbreeder: Combines features from different faces and styles to create custom characters. You can adjust parameters such as age, gender, facial expression, and other physical features. It is ideal for game developers, illustrators, and writers who need unique and realistic visual characters. Its strong point is the ease of manipulating and mixing features to obtain unexpected results.

3. MidJourney: This image generator from text is known for its high quality and unique artistic style. When describing a character, you can receive a stylized and artistic interpretation, which is excellent for creators looking for a more creative or conceptual approach. It is popular among illustrators and concept artists who want to capture characters in fantastical or creative environments.

4. RunwayML: It provides a platform that makes it easy to create visual and animated characters using AI. You can generate moving characters or even work with videos to integrate animations. It is ideal for multimedia creators, visual artists, and those looking to incorporate AI into video projects, as its interface is accessible and versatile, allowing for the creation of dynamic art.

5. Character AI: It focuses on the creation of interactive characters. Here you not only design the appearance, but also the personality of the character. These characters can participate in conversations, making them perfect for video games, chatbots, or immersive experiences. Character AI allows for personalities to be assigned, which adds an extra dimension for those who need characters that react intelligently to stimuli or users.

1. DALL·E (OpenAI)

Step by step:

1. Access the DALL·E platform on OpenAI.

2. Log in or create an account.

3. In the image generation area, write a detailed description of your character. Include details such as physical appearance, clothing, facial expression, and environment.

4. Click “Generate” and wait for the AI ??to create several versions of your description.

5. Review the results. If you wish, adjust the description to fine-tune the character's details.

6. Download the images you like best.

2. Artbreeder

Step by step:

1. Go to Artbreeder and register or log in.

2. Select the face or character creation section.

3. Choose a base image or upload your own.

4. Adjust the parameters using the sliders (age, gender, expression, hair color, etc.).

5. Mix various traits from different characters or add new elements until you get the design you want.

6. Once satisfied, save and download your character.

3. MidJourney

Step by step:

1. Join the MidJourney server on Discord.

2. Enter one of the designated image-generating channels.

3. Type the command /imagine followed by a detailed description of your character (appearance, style, environment, etc.).

4. The AI ??will generate several versions of your character based on your description.

5. Select the version you prefer or adjust the description if you want something different.

6. Download the image you like the most directly from Discord.

4. RunwayML

Step-by-step:

1. Sign up for RunwayML and select the tool you want to use to create your character.

2. If you're working with still images, choose the art generation model. If you're looking for animation, select the video option.

3. Enter descriptive text to generate your character or upload images to modify with AI.

4. Experiment with the animation or image blending tools until the character looks the way you want.

5. Save the project and download the final result.

5. Character AI

Step-by-step:

1. Sign up or log in to Character AI.

2. Create a new character by choosing “Create Character.”

3. Define your character's personality, describing how they should behave, speak, and react in different situations.

4. Customize the appearance by writing a description or choosing preset options.

5. Test the character by interacting with it in chat, asking questions or giving commands.

6. Adjust the personality or behavior if necessary and save the character for future interactions.

The topic of character creation and AI journalism in our hemisphere has grown significantly in recent years, presenting interesting data and trends:

1. Growth of AI in Latin America:

Countries such as Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Colombia are adopting AI tools for journalism, and some media are beginning to experiment with automatic content generation, such as financial or sports reports. The use of AI to create virtual characters in media has also begun to be integrated for interactive storytelling and immersive journalism.

2. Automated Journalism and Content Generation:

Companies such as Sinchi in Colombia are developing solutions that integrate AI to assist in the writing of news stories. AI can help collect and structure data more quickly, allowing journalists to focus on critical analysis or the creation of deeper content.

In Argentina, digital media are using AI to analyze large amounts of data in investigative reporting, helping to identify patterns and generate alerts.

3. Virtual Characters in Media and Social Networks:

In Mexico and Brazil, some virtual influencers created by AI, such as Lil Miquela (USA), are gaining popularity, and this phenomenon is beginning to expand in the region. These characters are designed with AI to interact with the public on social platforms, creating stories and promoting products.

These characters, although fictitious, can generate engagement in advertising campaigns and informative content, opening new avenues for narrative journalism and marketing.

4. Interactive Narrative in Video Games and Immersive Journalism:

Platforms such as RunwayML and Artbreeder are being used for the creation of characters in interactive journalistic narratives, allowing readers or viewers to explore the story from the perspective of various characters. This is particularly useful in issues of social justice, human rights and natural disasters, where the goal is to empathize with the different voices involved.

5. Ethics and Responsibility:

In terms of ethics, the debate arises about the use of AI in journalism to ensure the accuracy and integrity of information. In our hemisphere, media outlets and journalism organizations are establishing guidelines for the responsible use of AI, avoiding the generation of misinformation or fake news through automated characters or sources.

In addition, in the Latin American context, there is discussion about how AI could exacerbate labor inequalities, since the replacement of certain journalistic tasks by AI can affect employment in the sector.

6. Use of AI Characters for Education and Social Narrative:

In Latin America, AI is being explored to create educational characters that interact with students on topics such as history, science, and human rights, helping to tell stories in a more attractive and didactic way.

These characters are also being used to make social and cultural problems visible, providing a virtual voice to marginalized communities or those without representation in conventional media.

AI applied to journalism and character creation opens creative doors in our hemisphere, but also poses challenges regarding the balance between technological innovation and the preservation of ethics and authenticity in news content.

Notes

Remember the AI project.....Tres Amigos      PART TWO IS HERE

UNIDAD PANAMERICANA DIEGO RIVERA

Diego Rivera's concept of Pan-American Unity emphasized the idea of a united America—culturally, economically, and politically—against imperialism and oppression. Rivera believed that the diversity and shared history of the Americas, especially their indigenous and revolutionary roots, should be the foundation for greater solidarity and cooperation. His vision came to life in his mural "Pan-American Unity" (1940), which depicted indigenous heritage, historical leaders, and revolutionary figures, symbolizing a united front across the Americas.

5 Best Modern Examples of Pan-American Unity:

1. CELAC (Community of Latin American and Caribbean States)

CELAC was founded in 2010 and represents a major effort to unify Latin American and Caribbean countries without including the United States or Canada. Its primary focus is to promote political, economic, and social cooperation across the region, emphasizing regional integration, independence from external powers, and shared development goals. CELAC’s mission is directly aligned with Diego Rivera’s vision of a united, self-determined America, resisting outside domination and fostering mutual support.

Alignment with Rivera's Vision: CELAC champions the kind of solidarity and anti-imperialism that Rivera advocated. Its exclusion of the U.S. reflects a desire for greater autonomy for Latin American nations, echoing Rivera's hope for a united front against external control.


2. MERCOSUR (Southern Common Market)

MERCOSUR, created in 1991, is an economic and trade bloc consisting of countries in South America, including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. MERCOSUR's primary goal is to promote free trade and fluid movement of goods, people, and currency across its member nations. Though primarily focused on economic integration, MERCOSUR also promotes political and social collaboration, strengthening ties between member countries.

Alignment with Rivera's Vision: Rivera believed in the economic independence of Latin American nations and their ability to thrive through mutual cooperation. MERCOSUR embodies this ideal by creating a unified economic space that prioritizes regional prosperity over external dependencies.


3. ALBA (Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America)

ALBA was founded in 2004 as a response to neoliberal economic policies and seeks to promote regional integration from a perspective of social justice and solidarity. Inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar (similar to Rivera’s admiration for revolutionary figures), ALBA promotes cooperation among its members—such as Venezuela, Cuba, and Nicaragua—based on principles of mutual aid, anti-imperialism, and resource-sharing.

Alignment with Rivera's Vision: ALBA directly mirrors Rivera’s anti-imperialist views. It prioritizes economic independence, rejects neoliberalism, and aims to create a system based on cooperation and mutual benefit. Rivera’s Pan-American vision was deeply rooted in social justice, making ALBA a modern reflection of his ideals.


4. UNASUR (Union of South American Nations)

UNASUR was established in 2008 as an intergovernmental organization aimed at fostering regional integration in South America. Its goals included strengthening political and economic cooperation, promoting peace, and creating a common market similar to the European Union. Although UNASUR is currently dormant due to political differences among member nations, it represents an important effort towards unifying South America.

Alignment with Rivera's Vision: Rivera’s idea of Pan-American unity wasn’t only cultural—it was political and economic as well. UNASUR’s ambition to create a unified South America, free from outside intervention, reflects Rivera’s hope for stronger, more autonomous regional alliances that could challenge global powers.


5. Foro de São Paulo (São Paulo Forum)

The Foro de São Paulo was founded in 1990 as a platform for left-wing political parties and movements in Latin America to collaborate and create a unified strategy in response to the neoliberalism of the 1990s. It is a space for political dialogue and solidarity across the region, focusing on cooperation, mutual support, and resisting imperialism and foreign influence.

Alignment with Rivera's Vision: The Foro de São Paulo’s emphasis on political cooperation, leftist solidarity, and resistance to imperialism closely aligns with Diego Rivera’s ideals. Rivera believed in the power of collective action to achieve political and social change, and the forum seeks to unify progressive forces in Latin America under a shared vision of regional autonomy and justice.


1. What did Pan-American Unity mean to Diego Rivera?

For Diego Rivera, Pan-American Unity represented a vision of cooperation and solidarity between the countries of Latin America and North America, based on their common heritage and their struggle against colonialism and oppression. Rivera believed that only through continental unity, focused on their indigenous, cultural, and revolutionary roots, could the American nations resist foreign domination and build a more prosperous, just, and autonomous region.

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2. How did Diego Rivera express his idea of ??Pan-American Unity in his work?

Rivera captured his vision of Pan-American Unity in the mural "Pan-American Unity" (1940), where he depicted scenes from indigenous American history, European colonization, and revolutionary movements. In his work, he combined cultural and political elements from across the continent, such as the figures of Simon Bolivar and Emiliano Zapata, symbolizing an America united by its common heritage and its desire for social and economic justice.

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3. How important was cultural diversity in Rivera's idea of ??Pan-American Unity?

Rivera saw the cultural diversity of the Americas as a source of strength. For him, the continent's distinct indigenous, African, and mestizo traditions shared a history of resistance to colonization and imperialism. Rivera believed that this diversity should be celebrated and used as a basis for solidarity and unity, rather than as a barrier between nations.

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4. What is CELAC and how does it reflect Diego Rivera's vision of Pan-American Unity?

The Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), founded in 2010, is an intergovernmental organization that promotes political, economic, and social integration among the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, excluding the United States and Canada. CELAC reflects Rivera's vision of an autonomous and united America, by fostering regional cooperation without relying on foreign powers, aligning with his anti-imperialist approach.

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5. What are the goals of MERCOSUR and how do they relate to Diego Rivera's idea?

MERCOSUR is an economic bloc created in 1991 that seeks to promote free trade and economic integration between South American countries. Although primarily economic, it also encourages political and social cooperation between its members. This aligns with Rivera's vision of a united Latin America that can strengthen its economies and relations through mutual cooperation, resisting dependence on external powers.

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6. How does ALBA promote regional integration in Latin America and how does it connect to Rivera's vision?

The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA), founded in 2004, promotes regional integration from a perspective of social justice and solidarity, inspired by the ideals of Simon Bolivar. ALBA rejects neoliberalism and advocates cooperation between countries in the region to share resources and resist imperialism, reflecting Rivera's ideas on the importance of regional independence and unity.

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7. What was UNASUR and how does it reflect Diego Rivera's concept of unity?

The Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) was an intergovernmental organization created in 2008 to promote political and economic integration in South America. Although currently inactive, UNASUR sought the unity of the countries of the region to create a strong, autonomous bloc capable of acting independently on the global stage, reflecting Rivera's vision of a united and autonomous America.

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8. How does the São Paulo Forum contribute to cooperation between Latin American countries?

The São Paulo Forum, founded in 1990, is a platform for dialogue between left-wing political parties in Latin America that seeks a common strategy to address the continent's political and economic challenges. The forum promotes solidarity and cooperation between nations in the region, reflecting Rivera's idea that the nations of the Americas must work together to resist imperialism and fight for social justice.

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9. Why does CELAC exclude the United States and Canada from its structure?

CELAC excludes the United States and Canada because its goal is to promote regional integration in Latin America and the Caribbean, focusing on cooperation between these countries without the influence of the North American powers. This is in line with the vision of Diego Rivera, who advocated for an autonomous Latin America, free from the economic and political domination of the United States.

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10. What are the main challenges facing MERCOSUR?

MERCOSUR's main challenges include political differences between its members, economic fluctuations in the region, and the difficulty of achieving full integration in non-economic aspects, such as politics and human rights. These challenges hinder the creation of the regional unity that Rivera advocated, although economic cooperation remains an important step towards greater integration.

---

11. How does ALBA respond to imperialism and neoliberalism, according to its principles?

ALBA responds to imperialism and neoliberalism by promoting economic and political cooperation among Latin American countries based on principles of solidarity, social justice and economic complementarity. ALBA seeks to create a strong bloc that is not dependent on neoliberal policies imposed by world powers, aligning itself with Rivera's idea of ??a united and autonomous Latin America.

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12. What role did cultural integration play in Diego Rivera's vision of Pan-American Unity?

For Rivera, cultural integration was central to Pan-American Unity. He believed that the rich cultural diversity of Latin America, including indigenous, African and European traditions, should be celebrated and seen as a common strength. Rivera promoted the idea that cultural unity would serve as a basis for political and economic unity, allowing nations to resist outside influences.

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13. What has caused UNASUR's inactivity?

UNASUR's inactivity has been caused by political tensions between its members, particularly with the rise of right-wing governments that have preferred to distance themselves from the organization's regional integration goals. Ideological differences between member countries have made cooperation and therefore the continuation of its mission of unity difficult, despite the ideals shared with Rivera.

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14. How has the São Paulo Forum impacted Latin American politics?

The São Paulo Forum has had a significant impact on Latin American politics by providing a platform for coordination and dialogue for left-wing parties. It has helped form alliances, push political candidacies, and develop joint strategies to confront neoliberal and imperialist challenges. This reflects Rivera's vision of the importance of continental cooperation to resist external oppressive forces.

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15. How relevant is Diego Rivera's vision of Pan-American Unity still today?

Diego Rivera's vision of Pan-American Unity remains highly relevant today, especially in an increasingly globalized world. Current initiatives such as CELAC, ALBA and MERCOSUR show that the dream of a united and independent Latin America is still alive. Although challenges remain, efforts for regional integration, social justice and continental cooperation reflect Rivera's legacy and his idea of ??a united, strong and autonomous America.



SELFIES 

World Selfie Day is a celebration that has gained popularity all over the world. This cultural phenomenon has transcended borders and generations, becoming a form of personal and social expression in the digital age.

Have you ever wondered how this day came about and why it is celebrated? In this article, we are going to explore its origin, evolution, and impact on our society. Get ready to discover the fascinating history behind this global trend.

The origin of the selfie
The selfie is not a modern invention; its origin dates back many years. In 1839, Robert Cornelius, an American photography pioneer, took what is considered the first selfie in history.

Cornelius, using a daguerreotype camera, photographed himself in front of his shop in Philadelphia. This act marked the beginning of a practice that centuries later would become a worldwide phenomenon.

The technological evolution of the selfie photo
Over time, photographic technology advanced, making it increasingly easier to take selfies. The invention of portable cameras along with mobile phones with built-in cameras made capturing personal moments accessible to everyone. However, it was not until the arrival of social media that the selfie really took off as a global trend.

The explosion of the selfie in the digital age
Although the origin of the selfie dates back many years, it was not until the digital age that it gained the relevance and prominence it has today. Some of the tools that have contributed to this are:

Social media
Platforms like Instagram, Facebook and Snapchat have played a decisive role in the popularization of the selfie. These social media networks not only allow for instant photo sharing, but also encourage interaction and social validation through “likes” and comments. The culture of taking a selfie has become intertwined with the human need for connection and recognition.

The impact of influencers and celebrities
Influencers and celebrities have been instrumental in consolidating the selfie as an integral part of digital culture. Characters like Kim Kardashian, who even published a book titled “Selfish” filled with her selfies, have elevated this practice to an art form. The influence of these public figures motivates millions of people to emulate their poses and styles, perpetuating the trend.

HIGHLIGHT PHRASE:
“In Colombia, the word selfie is searched 6,600 times on average per month on the Google search engine.”

World Selfie Day: When and how was it proclaimed?
World Selfie Day is celebrated on June 21st of each year. This date was established in 2014 by DJ Rick McNeely of Fishbowl Radio Network. McNeely, a selfie enthusiast, proposed this celebration as a way to bring people together through photography and social media. Since then, this day has been dedicated to capturing and sharing selfie photos around the world.

The purpose of the celebration
The main objective of World Selfie Day is to celebrate self-expression and creativity. It is an opportunity for people to share their lives and their unique perspective with the world. In addition, many organizations and brands take advantage of this date to launch advertising campaigns and promote interaction with their audiences.

The selfie in modern culture
More than just a photo: Today, the selfie has become a powerful means of communication, used to express emotions, document experiences and connect with others. These images tell personal stories in an immediate and visually appealing way.
The psychology behind the selfie: Taking a selfie and sharing it can boost self-esteem and provide a sense of belonging and validation. However, it's also important to be aware of the potential negative effects, such as reliance on social approval and constant comparison with others.
You might be interested in: 5 most common mistakes when doing digital advertising

Tips for taking the perfect selfie
Who hasn't taken a selfie? Whether it's to capture a nice moment with family, friends, a partner, or to have a memory in a special place. If you're an expert at taking photos, you can skip this paragraph, otherwise, we think these tips would be useful for you:

Find your best angle
Every person has an angle that highlights their best features. Experiment with different camera positions and facial expressions to find the profile that best suits you. Don't be afraid to try new things until you find out what works best for you.

Use lighting to your advantage
Lighting is key to a good selfie. Natural light is ideal, so try to take your photos near a window or outdoors. If you're in a dimly lit location, you can use your camera's flash feature or a ring light for best results.

Get creative with backgrounds
The background for your selfie can make a big difference. Choose interesting or colorful backdrops that complement your look. Avoid those that look cluttered or distracting that can take away from your image.

Editing and filters
Don't underestimate the power of editing. Applying filters or making small adjustments to brightness, contrast, and saturation can significantly improve your selfie. However, try not to overdo it, as the goal is to keep it natural.

World Selfie Day is more than just a celebration of photo sharing; it's a tribute to self-expression and connection in the online age. If you consider yourself passionate about digital trends and want to enhance your skills, we recommend that you learn about our undergraduate program.

Why do we take so many selfies? Because we are afraid of dying, say psychologists

Many of us have phones full of selfies documenting everything from a holiday to a couple of days out.

But what's behind the modern fascination with photographing ourselves?

Psychologists have found a rather morbid answer: the fear of death.

Researchers at Tel Aviv University in Israel asked 100 students about their motivations for taking selfies.

They found that those who consumed more had stronger symptoms of “death anxiety” or thanatophobia, the intense fear of death that affects up to a fifth of Britons.

But what's behind the modern fascination with photographing oneself? Psychologists have found a rather morbid answer: the fear of death (file image)

Experts say they believe taking endless selfies may actually be an attempt to “preserve a false sense of immortality.”

In a paper published in the journal Psychological Reports, they wrote: “Selfies likely satisfy the need to be immortal.

One of the behaviours used to achieve the feeling of immortality is photography and today photography is literally at our fingertips.

Researchers at Tel Aviv University in Israel asked 100 students about their motivations for taking selfies (file image).

“We found that the more aware (and fearful) people are of their mortality, the more they take and share selfies.”

Other studies suggest that people spend an average of seven minutes a day smiling into a smartphone camera to capture the perfect photo to post on social media.

Some even hurt themselves in the process: A 2022 study found 379 selfie-related deaths over a 13-year period, many of which involved falls from scenic heights.

In which countries do most people die from taking a selfie?

Mexican Oscar Otero thought it would be a good idea to take a photo of himself with a revolver. After having a few beers with his friends, he raised his cell phone with his left hand and held it far enough away to capture his head and the barrel of the gun in the same image. He smiled and fired. He was 21 years old.

Oscar's death is one of 49 fatal accidents related to "selfies" recorded by the data analysis organization Priceonomics between 2014 and January 2016.

Pricenomics, based in the United States and made up of engineers, analysts and scientists, tracked news in the world's media about these events and concluded that the main victims of these risky selfies are between 15 and 25 years old.

"Selfies" and sharks
This year, the number of fatal accidents related to so-called extreme "selfies" has not stopped making headlines around the world.

According to the Philippines Daily Inquirer, one of the main newspapers in the Philippines, in January a 19-year-old girl fell 20 floors while trying to take a photo on the roof of a building in Manila.

In February, three Indian medical students drowned after falling into an irrigation canal. The Indian Express newspaper reports that the accident happened while they were taking photos on the shore.

In March, a 43-year-old man accidentally shot himself in front of his girlfriend while taking a selfie in Washington, United States.

According to The Washington Post, it was not the first time the victim had photographed himself pointing a shotgun at himself. This time he did not notice that the weapon was loaded.

Ten tricks you didn't know to take selfies like a pro this holiday. This is how you can make selfies come out as good as possible regardless of the mobile phone you use to take them.

Holidays bring with them rest, partying, food and photographs. Being away from home for longer means we tend to use our mobile cameras more to immortalise the moments we enjoy, whether alone or with company. In the past, photos were always taken of others, but smartphones have made selfies almost inevitable.

For a photo we take of ourselves to turn out well, we have to take several things into account. Some technical aspects will help us to ensure the quality of the image is as good as possible, and other aspects will make what is shown more balanced. That is why some images are often liked and others are not.

It will be assumed that all selfies will be taken from the smartphone, regardless of whether we are going to save it in Google Photos or the gallery app we choose or whether we are going to share it later. The idea is that they turn out as good as possible, especially if we are going to upload them to social networks.

Avoid having your arm stick out

A beginner's mistake is taking a selfie and having your arm outstretched. To avoid this, you can use a selfie stick or move your phone a little closer. If you want to move it further away, you can choose to use the wide-angle lens on the back and move the phone closer.

In this case, it is recommended that the subject of the photo be in the center, because cameras that use a wide-angle lens tend to distort the edges a lot, and this is very noticeable on faces. That said, you can shape the image so that the arm appears as a compositional element.

This is something that is often done in photography, knowing the rules and then breaking them. It is important to do it voluntarily, otherwise it is very noticeable and the final image suffers in quality and composition.

Choose the camera well
Current mobile phones have several sensors, especially on the back. This means that we can take selfies from all of them, although it is not the most comfortable. The Samsung Galaxy Z Flip 5 is perfect for this because of its external screen, but the rest do not have it.

Even so, if you want the highest image quality, you may opt for one of the rear cameras and not the front one. If so, you should select either the wide angle or the wide angle, depending on the type of image you are looking for. The telephoto lens is ruled out in this type of photos due to the proximity between the subject and the camera.

Think about the frame
Another aspect to take into account is the frame. That is, the area of ??the image in which we appear: centered, tilted to one side, only at the bottom... All this causes the composition of the image to change, so much so that very different images could result.

In selfies, it is normal to give prominence to the person taking the selfie, but not doing so draws too much attention, perhaps sharing the scene with some element of the game we are in. The same applies to the idea of ??not showing the whole face, but only a part, half, etc.

The background is key
Just as the frame is important, so is the background you choose. Depending on what you want to convey, you will look for a more neutral one or one that shows a landscape that you want to highlight. Simply turning around yourself can completely change the essence of an image.

Sometimes it helps to get closer or further away from certain elements or buildings, which change the frame of the photo enough by simply modifying the background. An example is being on a cliff and seeing land in the selfie or getting closer so that only the sea can be seen.

Light is really important
Light is also one of the most important elements, because it not only allows you to appreciate the facial features well, but also gives one or another nuance to the images. The most obvious is when taking selfies at sunset, with warmer tones.

At night, light is also important, although for a different reason. You have to stand in front of a point of light so that your face can be seen well. Or the opposite. You can choose to stand between the sun and the camera to take a selfie in which only the silhouette of your face can be seen, as it is backlit.

The flash is the devil's fault
Although many people have the flash in automatic mode, it is not usually a good idea to use it, because it gives a type of light that does not usually look good in photos. Surely many still remember the photos from digital cameras from the beginning of the century, with those Xenon flashes that illuminated, but at what price.

As an exception, we can use the flashes from other mobile phones' cameras as points of light, to create certain scenes or atmospheres when another person is going to take a selfie. This is already raising the bar a bit, but it never hurts to know.

Not always looking at the camera
One of the mistakes many people make is believing that when you take a selfie you always have to look at the camera. On the contrary, looking away gives the image a different value. If we combine this with a different frame, we will have a selfie that is much more striking than the ones we usually take.

Unlike when we are photographed, it is not possible to take a photo from behind, but we can look to the side, or up or down, and combine that with different light sources, which give different results. Trying different things is always a good idea.

Don't force the pose
Except for professionals who dedicate themselves to it, it is easier to take a good image without posing too much than forcing grimaces and expressions. Smiling is not mandatory either, although it is not about taking sad photos, simply about finding what you want to convey.

In addition, this helps not to give a false image on the networks, if they are sharing the images. Something that has been seen ad nauseam, almost perfect selfies with surreal poses that only serve to make others wonder if it is really real.

The timer is your friend
If you have chosen to take a photo with the front camera, it is easy to see how you are going to come out. If you choose one of the rear cameras, it is advisable to use the timer, which gives you the possibility of squaring up the image, posing it as you wish and not trying to press the button blindly.

Some phones allow you to take photos with a smile, with the palm of your hand or with other gestures, and that would also work. Another option is to use burst mode, although this is not the most convenient for selfies since the subject does not move much.

Better up than down
The ideal is to take the photo vertically, parallel to us, but if we have to choose, it is always better to take a high angle (from top to bottom) than a low angle (from bottom to top), but each technique has its pros and cons.

The reason for this is that a low angle always shows more of the lower part of the chin, the double chin, and makes us look fatter than we might actually be. However, it is always possible to force an angle that is not theoretically favorable to enhance certain photographs and ideas.

FLANEUR


1. The flâneur and observation as art The flâneur was a lover of the art of observing, not just large works, but the small scenes of everyday life. For this character, every walk was a living work of art, with the city's inhabitants as actors in an urban drama. Today, this is reflected in practices such as street photography and documentary film, where urban life is portrayed with an aesthetic approach similar to that of the flâneur. Photographers such as Henri Cartier-Bresson captured the essence of what the flâneur represented: spontaneous moments in the streets, full of social meaning and beauty.

2. Urban transformation and the flâneur The figure of the flâneur is closely linked to the urban renewal of Paris under Baron Haussmann in the 19th century, when narrow medieval streets were replaced by wide boulevards. This allowed for better circulation and a perfect setting for flâneurs to stroll and observe. Today, cities like New York, Berlin or Tokyo, with their pedestrian zones and urban parks, offer spaces where “modern flâneurs” can wander, observing the fusion of cultures, architecture and social dynamics.

3. The flâneur in the digital age In the 21st century, the digital walk has taken center stage. Just as the flâneur explored the physical space of the city, today people wander through virtual spaces, observing and interacting with digital content. Networks like Instagram, for example, encourage “digital flânerie” through endlessly scrolling through images of urban life, capturing and sharing everyday moments. Hashtags like #streetphotography or #urbanexploration are examples of how modern flâneurs find an equivalent in digital space.

4. Psychogeography and the flâneur In the 1950s and 1960s, French Situationists such as Guy Debord introduced the concept of psychogeography, a way of exploring cities through aimless walks that reveal how urban environments influence people’s emotions and behaviors. This approach is closely related to the tradition of the flâneur, who also saw the city as an emotional landscape that could be interpreted through observation. Today, psychogeography remains popular, especially in movements such as “drift” (a walk with no goal) and “urban sketching” (drawing urban scenes while on a walk).

5. The rebirth of the flâneur in slow tourism With the rise of slow travel, the flâneur has found a new lease of life. This movement rejects fast and superficial tourism, inviting travelers to explore cities in a leisurely manner, on foot, with time to get lost in local neighborhoods. Cities like Venice, with its narrow streets and canals, or Kyoto, with its gardens and temples, are perfect for contemporary flânerie, where travelers can absorb their surroundings at their own pace.

6. Flâneurs and fashion

The figure of the flâneur also influenced the world of fashion. The refined stroller not only observed, but presented himself as part of the urban spectacle. The dandy, a stylized version of the flâneur, was a well-dressed man, who made the stroll an opportunity to show off his elegance and taste for fashion. Today, this spirit lives on in the great fashion capitals such as Paris, Milan and New York, where walking the streets can be a parade of personal style.

7. Flâneur as social critic

In literature, the flâneur became a critical observer of social transformations. Authors such as Walter Benjamin saw the flâneur as a commentator on modernity, someone who captured the tensions between the traditional and the modern, the rural and the urban. Today, this figure resonates with critics of gentrification, who wander through transformed neighborhoods, documenting how urban landscapes change with the arrival of new commercial and residential developments, displacing original communities.

8. The flâneur and the freedom of wandering

The flâneur celebrates the freedom to get lost, to move without haste or purpose. This goes against the modern mindset, where time is a commodity and everything seems structured. In times where productivity is a priority, the simple act of walking aimlessly can be considered an act of resistance. Movements for the recovery of public spaces in cities such as Barcelona or Bogotá advocate giving people back the right to wander, reconnecting with the urban environment without the pressure of consumption or accelerated traffic.

9. Flâneurs and climate change

Although it may sound unusual, some see a connection between the idea of ??the flâneur and the current climate crisis. Walking like the flâneur can be considered an ecological act, a way of moving around the city without the need for polluting vehicles. The practice of the "green flâneur" consists of exploring cities in a sustainable way, paying attention not only to architecture and human life, but also to trees, parks and green spaces, seeking a balance between urbanization and nature.

10. The resurrection of the flâneur in times of pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, when the streets of big cities were empty and most people took refuge in their homes, the concept of the flâneur took on a new meaning. Solitary walks became a way to reconnect with urban space in a different way. People began to walk more, not as simple displacements, but as a way to find calm, observe what normally went unnoticed and rediscover their neighborhoods.


?	GONDWANA
 

An interpretation of the early phase of separation of Laurasia and Gondwana
Gondwana was a large southern continental block that existed since the Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago). About 270 million years ago, Gondwana collided with the continents of Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia to form a supercontinent known as Pangaea. Gondwana began to break up during the Jurassic (about 180 million years ago) and Cretaceous, with the opening of the Drake Passage, which separated South America and Antarctica during the Eocene. The splitting of Pangaea in two extended the Tethys Sea westwards, separating it from Laurasia, during the Jurassic. The process gave rise to the landmasses of present-day South America, Africa, Australia, Zealandia, Hindustan, the island of Madagascar and Antarctica, a process of partition and separation that continued during the Cenozoic and remains active today.
Toponymy
The continent of Gondwana was named by the Austrian scientist Eduard Suess (1831–1914) after a region in northern India, Gond (gondwana, Sanskrit for Gond forest),1? where Permian–Triassic sedimentary sequences had been described that he thought were part of an Old Continent. Suess later wrote about it as Gondwana-Land in his book The Faces of the Earth (Das Antlitz der Erde), published between 1883 and 1901.
The name had been used previously in a geological context, first by Henry Benedict Medlicott in 1872, from whom the sedimentary sequences of Gondwana (Permian–Triassic) were also described.2?
Some scientists prefer the term "Gondwanaland" to make a clear distinction between the region and the supercontinent.3?
Geological history.
Paleotectonic map of eastern Gondwana with the Pan-African and/or Circum-Antarctic orogenic (“mobile”) belts highlighted by age differences (see Fitzsimons, 2000a, cited in Meert, 2003, follow source link below).
In the Permian (more than 250 million years ago) all the continental masses were united in a single supercontinent, which we now call Pangaea. About 200 million years ago it had split into two supercontinents: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. They were then separated by the Tethys Ocean, which extended from southern Asia through the present Mediterranean basin to present-day America, which was separated in two by its waters, since North America was joined to Europe and South America to Africa. Later, the continent of Gondwana was subdivided into large blocks separated by fractures in the continental lithosphere. These fragments, continents or subcontinents, were dispersed in a process that is still ongoing, now complemented by a general convergence of the northern continents (Laurasian) against those of the south (Gondwanan). In this way, Greater Adria would have pushed the Mediterranean geosyncline against the boreal continents, folding the Eurasian Alps and causing large northward shifts in them. At the same time, North America and South America converged, giving rise to the uplift of the Isthmus of Panama. Africa, which formed the central core of Gondwana, continues to fragment. In the relatively recent past it separated from Arabia, which continues to move away to the northwest as the Red Sea rift widened. Now, albeit very slowly, another fragment of the African continent is breaking away, to the east of the so-called Great Rift Valley, which is a huge fracture that starts at the mouth of the Zambezi River and runs to the Red Sea, marked by Lakes Malawi, Tanganyika, Victoria and Rudolph. It is also moving very slowly towards the Mediterranean Sea and will end up crashing into the countries of southern Europe.
Angiosperms originated in the Cretaceous and diversified rapidly, giving rise to many of the lineages currently classified as families. To the north, North America and Europe can be seen, to the south, Antarctica, Australia and India (here magnified by the deformation of the world map), and in the centre, the continents of Africa and South America.
Gondwana is important biogeographically, as it explains the geographic distribution of many taxonomic groups that arose there and some of which later spread across the northern continents derived from Laurasia; or which, originating in Laurasia, have later broken into the southern continents, as is the case of placental mammals that moved to South America; it also served as protection for some species such as the placerias and koolasuchus. The supercontinent is the common origin of the current distribution of Antarctic flora.

1. The Origin of Gondwana
Gondwana was formed from the supercontinent Pangaea, which existed about 300 million years ago during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic periods. Pangaea brought together all of Earth's land masses into one large continent surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa. About 180 million years ago, Pangaea began to break up into two supercontinents: Laurasia in the Northern Hemisphere and Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere.
Gondwana, also known as Gondwanaland, was the enormous land mass that included the regions that now form South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, India, Madagascar, and the Arabian Peninsula. Evidence of its existence was gathered through geological, paleontological, and biogeographical studies.
2. Composition and Geographic Distribution
Gondwana covered a vast part of the Southern Hemisphere. It included the following present-day continents and regions:
South America: At the time, South America was connected to Africa and Antarctica.
Africa: Africa occupied a central position in Gondwana and shared borders with South America and India.
India: Before breaking away and moving north, India was joined to Africa and Madagascar.
Antarctica: Although it is a frozen continent today, during the time of Gondwana, Antarctica had temperate climates and was home to rich biodiversity.
Australia: Australia was connected to Antarctica and shared species of flora and fauna with the other continents.
Madagascar: It was joined to eastern Africa and later broke away along with India.
3. Evidence of Gondwana in fossils
One of the most conclusive pieces of evidence for the existence of Gondwana comes from the study of plant and animal fossils. Paleontologists have found similar fossils on continents that are now separated by thousands of miles of ocean, indicating that these lands were once connected. Notable examples include:
Glossopteris, a group of seed plants that were found in Africa, South America, India, Australia, and Antarctica. This shows that these continents were once part of the same land mass.
Mesosaurus, an aquatic reptile found in South America and Africa. Since these reptiles were freshwater and could not have crossed an ocean, their existence on both continents is strong evidence that they were connected.
Lystrosaurus, a land animal found in Africa, India, and Antarctica. Its distribution also supports the connection of these lands under Gondwana.
4. Geological Evidence
The geology of Gondwana offers another layer of evidence for its existence. Similar rock formations and minerals have been found on now-separated continents, indicating that they were once part of the same geological whole. Some examples of geological evidence include:
Coal deposits: In Gondwana, there were extensive swamps and forests that later became coal deposits. These deposits, with matching geological characteristics, are found in South America, South Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica.
Mountain ranges: The mountains of the continents that were part of Gondwana, such as the Andes in South America, the Transantarctic Mountains and the Cape Mountains in South Africa, show very similar patterns of geological formation. These formations are the result of the same tectonic activity that shaped Gondwana.


Glaciation: During the Carboniferous-Permian period, a major glaciation affected Gondwana. Traces of these ancient glaciers, known as glacial striations, are found on continents as far apart as South America, Africa, India, and Australia. These marks show a pattern that only makes sense if the continents were connected, forming part of the supercontinent.

5. Fragmentation of Gondwana

The process of continental drift began to break up Gondwana about 180 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic. The movement of tectonic plates, driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, caused the continents to gradually separate. As the tectonic plates shifted, Gondwana began to break up into smaller blocks, giving rise to the continents we know today.

The fragmentation process occurred in several stages:

First phase (Early Jurassic): The Atlantic Ocean was formed when South America separated from Africa. This was one of the most important events in the breakup of Gondwana.

Second phase (Middle Cretaceous): India separated from Antarctica and began its long journey north, which would culminate in the collision with Asia and the formation of the Himalayan mountain range.

Third phase (Early Cenozoic): Australia separated from Antarctica, allowing the separate evolution of species on both continents. This geographic isolation allowed Australia to develop its unique biodiversity.

6. Impact on biodiversity

The fragmentation of Gondwana played a key role in the evolution of life on Earth. As the continents separated and geographic barriers such as oceans formed, species that once shared a common habitat began to evolve independently. This gave rise to the biological diversity we see today in different parts of the world.

For example:

Marsupials in Australia: When Australia separated from Gondwana, it was isolated for millions of years. This isolation allowed marsupials, such as kangaroos and koalas, to develop without competition from placental mammals.

Plants in Antarctica: Although Antarctica is covered in ice today, during the time of Gondwana it had warmer climates, which allowed for the growth of forests and the existence of biodiversity similar to that of other parts of Gondwana, such as South America and Australia.

Evolution of mammals: In South America, due to its separation from Africa and isolation from North America, mammals evolved in unique ways, giving rise to extinct species such as megatheriums (giant sloths) and toxodonts.

7. Importance of the study of Gondwana in geology and biology

The study of Gondwana has been crucial to understanding the history of the Earth and life. It has allowed scientists to reconstruct how the continents moved over time and how this affected the evolution of species. In addition, research into Gondwana has shed light on the tectonic processes that still continue to shape our planet.

One of the most important achievements in the study of Gondwana has been the theory of plate tectonics, proposed in the 1960s by Alfred Wegener. His idea of ??continental drift, which was initially highly controversial, is now widely accepted and has become a pillar of modern geology.

8. Gondwana and climate change

The study of past climates in Gondwana has also provided valuable information on how the Earth's climate has changed over millions of years. For example, during the late Paleozoic, Gondwana experienced intense glaciation, and traces of this glaciation are found on continents currently located in warm areas, such as Africa and South America.

This study of ancient climates is useful for scientists seeking to understand current climate change, as they can analyze how changes in the arrangement of continents and carbon dioxide levels affected the climate in the past.

Conclusion

Gondwana is not just a piece of the geological puzzle, but has been crucial in shaping Earth's history, the evolution of species, and climate patterns. Its study has provided a unique window into understanding how life and the planet have changed and will continue to change over time. Its fragmentation not only explains the current distribution of continents, but also the diversity of species, plants, and geological formations we find today.

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